History of Technology

 A look back at key moments in the history of cyberspace, electronics, and the space age. 

Many a technologist has been inspired by science fiction. Some have even built, or rebuilt, entire companies around an idea introduced in a story they read, as the founders of Second Life and Meta did, working from the metaverse as imagined by Neal Stephenson in his seminal 1992 novel Snow Crash.

IEEE Spectrum has a history of running amazing sci-fi stories. Twenty years ago, I worked with computer scientist and novelist Vernor Vinge on his “Synthetic Serendipity,” a short story he adapted from his novel Rainbows End just for publication in Spectrum. Vinge’s work is informed by his research and relationships with some of the world’s leading technologists, which in turn gave me plenty of background for the accompanying 2004 Spectrum article “Mike Villas’s World.” Vinge’s tale of the near future explored then-nascent technologies, such as 3D printing, augmented reality, and advanced search-engines, all of which Vinge depicts with stunning clarity and foresight.

So when our News Manager Margo Anderson and Contributing Editor Charles Q. Choi hatched the idea for the science fiction/fact package featured in this issue, our local sci-fi maven, Special Projects Editor Stephen Cass, eagerly volunteered to shepherd the project. Stephen is coauthor of Hollyweird Science: From Quantum Quirks to the Multiverse (on the science shown in movies and TV shows) and the editor of several sci-fi anthologies, including Coming Soon Enough, published by Spectrum 10 years ago.

Choi suggested we hire the futurist Karl Schroeder, author of 10 sci-fi novels, to write the sci-fi story. Cass, Choi, and Schroeder then had a brainstorming session. Cass recalls, “I knew by the end of it that Karl had the chops to nail the real science concepts we wanted to explore, and come up with a compelling narrative.”

The idea they hit upon—turning a planet into a computer—is not new in science fiction, Cass notes.

But “we wanted Karl to explore the idea in a way that would shed light on what purpose you’d put one to,” he says, “and also think about what some of the unintended consequences might be. And he had to do it in 2,500 words, which is a very tight fit for a story.”

As for the accompanying nonfiction annotations, Choi’s brief was to work with Cass and Schroeder to make sure that the story, although fantastical and set in the far future, was sufficiently grounded in ideas that scientists and futurists are taking seriously today.

And of course, any good sci-fi story needs some cool art. For that, Deputy Art Director Brandon Palacio chose Andrew Archer, whose work has a terrific balance of realism and stylistic flair. Historically, many science-fiction stories and books have had accompanying art that’s only barely related to what happens in the text, but Archer worked with us to make sure his work really fit “Hijack”.

Deft storytelling is something Cass himself delivers in this month’s Hands On: “Vintage Hi-Fi Enters the 21st Century”. Not only is he our in-house sci-fi expert, he’s also our staff do-it-yourselfer. This month, he resurrects a vintage hi-fi that came from his wife’s family. Inspired by the recent passing of his father, who helped his own father in their radio and television rental shop in Dublin before spending decades working as a broadcast engineer, Cass wires up a tale of family and connection through technology that you’ll read only in these pages.

Huge interest in shared virtual environments, or the "metaverse". Here's how it works:

WHAT IS THE METAVERSE?

Metaverse, a term first coined in science fiction, is a combination of the prefix "meta", meaning beyond, and "universe".

It refers to shared virtual worlds where land, buildings, avatars and even names can be bought and sold, often using cryptocurrency. In these environments, people can wander around with friends, visit buildings, buy goods and services, and attend events.

The concept has surged in popularity during the pandemic as lockdown measures and work-from-home policies pushed more people online for both business and pleasure.

The term covers a wide variety of virtual realities, from workplace tools to games and community platforms.

Many of the new platforms are powered by blockchain technology, using cryptocurrency and non-fungible tokens (NFTs), allowing a new kind of decentralised digital asset to be built, owned and monetised.

WHAT IS BLOCKCHAIN?

A blockchain, opens new tab is a database that is shared across a network of computers.

Once a record has been added to the chain it is very difficult to change. To ensure all the copies of the database are the same, the network makes constant checks.

Blockchain has been used to underpin cyber-currencies like bitcoin, but many other possible uses are emerging.

WHAT ARE NON-FUNGIBLE TOKENS (NFTs)?

Non-fungible tokens (NFTs) are a new type of virtual asset that have fuelled much of the growth in the metaverse.

An NFT represents an intangible digital item such as an image, video, or in-game item. Owners of NFTs are recorded on blockchain, allowing an NFT to be traded as a stand-in for the digital asset it represents. 

The NFT market has surged during the pandemic with $2.5 billion in sales, opens new tab for the first half of 2021, compared with just $13.7 million a year ago.

Some NFT enthusiasts see them as collectibles with intrinsic value because of their cultural significance, while others treat them as an investment, speculating on rising prices.

A digital-only artwork, opens new tab "Everydays - The First 5000 Days" by American artist Mike Winkelmann, known as Beeple, was sold for nearly $70 million at Christie's in March in the first ever such sale by a major auction house. 

WHO ARE THE BIG PLAYERS?

The metaverse can be broadly broken down into two distinct types of platforms. 

The first centres around building a blockchain-based metaverse, using NFTs and cryptocurrencies. Platforms like Decentraland and The Sandbox allow people to purchase virtual parcels of land and build their own environments.

The second group uses the metaverse to refer to virtual worlds more generally, where people can meet up for business or recreation. Facebook Inc, opens new tab announced in July it was creating a product team to work on the metaverse.

Roblox, Fortnite and Minecraft, gaming platforms where users can compete and collaborate in games as well as create their own, fall into this category.

BUYING INTO AND MAKING MONEY IN THE METAVERSE

While many metaverse platforms provide free accounts for people to join, people buying or trading virtual assets on blockchain-based platforms need to use cryptocurrencies.

Several blockchain-based platforms require Ethereum-based crypto tokens, such as MANA for Decentraland and SAND for The Sandbox, to purchase and trade virtual assets.

In Decentraland, users can trade NFT artworks or charge entry to a virtual exhibition or concert. They can also make money by trading land, prices of which have surged over the past few years.

On Roblox, users can make money by charging other users for access to games they create.

THE FUTURE OF THE METAVERSE

It is unclear to what extent a true metaverse, which fully replicates real life, is possible or how long it would take to develop. 

Many platforms in the blockchain-based metaverse are still developing Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR) technology that will allow users to fully interact in the space.

Accounting and advisory giant PwC forecasts VR and AR technologies to deliver a $1.5 trillion boost to the global economy by 2030, compared with $46.5 billion in 2019.

Big tech firms are jumping into the space, with Facebook Inc (FB.O), opens new tab, Alphabet Inc-owned (GOOGL.O), opens new tab Google and Microsoft Corp (MSFT.O), opens new tab investing in cloud computing and VR companies in anticipation of its growth.