Radiotion Therapy

What is radiation therapy?

Radiation therapy uses high-energy radiation to shrink tumors and kill cancer cells . X-rays, gamma rays, and charged particles are types of radiation used for cancer treatment.

The radiation may be delivered by a machine outside the body (external-beam radiation therapy), or it may come from radioactive material placed in the body near cancer cells (internal radiation therapy, also called brachytherapy).

Systemic radiation therapy uses radioactive substances, such as radioactive iodine, that travel in the blood to kill cancer cells.

About half of all cancer patients receive some type of radiation therapy sometime during the course of their treatment.

How does radiation therapy kill cancer cells?

Radiation therapy kills cancer cells by damaging their DNA (the molecules inside cells that carry genetic information and pass it from one generation to the next). Radiation therapy can either damage DNA directly or create charged particles (free radicals) within the cells that can in turn damage the DNA.

Cancer cells whose DNA is damaged beyond repair stop dividing or die. When the damaged cells die, they are broken down and eliminated by the body’s natural processes.

Does radiation therapy kill only cancer cells?

No, radiation therapy can also damage normal cells, leading to side effects.

Doctors take potential damage to normal cells into account when planning a course of radiation therapy. The amount of radiation that normal tissue can safely receive is known for all parts of the body. Doctors use this information to help them decide where to aim radiation during treatment.

Why do patients receive radiation therapy?

Radiation therapy is sometimes given with curative intent (that is, with the hope that the treatment will cure a cancer, either by eliminating a tumor, preventing cancer recurrence, or both). In such cases, radiation therapy may be used alone or in combination with surgery, chemotherapy, or both.

Radiation therapy may also be given with palliative intent. Palliative treatments are not intended to cure. Instead, they relieve symptoms and reduce the suffering caused by cancer.

Some examples of palliative radiation therapy are:

• Radiation given to the brain to shrink tumors formed from cancer cells that have spread to the brain from another part of the body (metastases).
• Radiation given to shrink a tumor that is pressing on the spine or growing within a bone, which can cause pain.
• Radiation given to shrink a tumor near the esophagus, which can interfere with a patient’s ability to eat and drink.

How is radiation therapy planned for an individual patient?

A radiation oncologist develops a patient’s treatment plan through a process called treatment planning, which begins with simulation.
During simulation, detailed imaging scans show the location of a patient’s tumor and the normal areas around it. These scans are usually computed tomography (CT) scans, but they can also include magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET), and ultrasound scans.

Computed Tomography Scanner. CT scans are often used in treatment planning for radiation therapy. During CT scanning, pictures of the inside of the body are created by a computer linked to an x-ray machine.

During simulation and daily treatments, it is necessary to ensure that the patient will be in exactly the same position every day relative to the machine delivering the treatment or doing the imaging. Body molds, head masks, or other devices may be constructed for an individual patient to make it easier for a patient to stay still. Temporary skin marks and even tattoos are used to help with precise patient positioning.

Patients getting radiation to the head may need a mask. The mask helps keep the head from moving so that the patient is in the exact same position for each treatment.

After simulation, the radiation oncologist then determines the exact area that will be treated, the total radiation dose that will be delivered to the tumor, how much dose will be allowed for the normal tissues around the tumor, and the safest angles (paths) for radiation delivery.

The staff working with the radiation oncologist (including physicists and dosimetrists) use sophisticated computers to design the details of the exact radiation plan that will be used. After approving the plan, the radiation oncologist authorizes the start of treatment. On the first day of treatment, and usually at least weekly after that, many checks are made to ensure that the treatments are being delivered exactly the way they were planned.

Radiation doses for cancer treatment are measured in a unit called a gray (Gy), which is a measure of the amount of radiation energy absorbed by 1 kilogram of human tissue. Different doses of radiation are needed to kill different types of cancer cells.

Radiation can damage some types of normal tissue more easily than others. For example, the reproductive organs (testicles and ovaries) are more sensitive to radiation than bones. The radiation oncologist takes all of this information into account during treatment planning.
If an area of the body has previously been treated with radiation therapy, a patient may not be able to have radiation therapy to that area a second time, depending on how much radiation was given during the initial treatment. If one area of the body has already received the maximum safe lifetime dose of radiation, another area might still be treated with radiation therapy if the distance between the two areas is large enough.

The area selected for treatment usually includes the whole tumor plus a small amount of normal tissue surrounding the tumor. The normal tissue is treated for two main reasons:

• To take into account body movement from breathing and normal movement of the organs within the body, which can change the location of a tumor between treatments.
• To reduce the likelihood of tumor recurrence from cancer cells that have spread to the normal tissue next to the tumor (called microscopic local spread).

How is radiation therapy given to patients?

Radiation can come from a machine outside the body (external-beam radiation therapy) or from radioactive material placed in the body near cancer cells (internal radiation therapy, more commonly called brachytherapy). Systemic radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance, given by mouth or into a vein, that travels in the blood to tissues throughout the body.
The type of radiation therapy prescribed by a radiation oncologist depends on many factors, including:

• The type of cancer.
• The size of the cancer.
• The cancer’s location in the body.
• How close the cancer is to normal tissues that are sensitive to radiation.
• How far into the body the radiation needs to travel.
• The patient’s general health and medical history.
• Whether the patient will have other types of cancer treatment.
• Other factors, such as the patient’s age and other medical conditions.

External-beam radiation therapy
External-beam radiation therapy is most often delivered in the form of photon beams (either x-rays or gamma rays). A photon is the basic unit of light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation. It can be thought of as a bundle of energy. The amount of energy in a photon can vary. For example, the photons in gamma rays have the highest energy, followed by the photons in x-rays.

Linear Accelerator Used for External-beam Radiation Therapy.
Many types of external-beam radiation therapy are delivered using a machine called a linear accelerator (also called a LINAC). A LINAC uses electricity to form a stream of fast-moving subatomic particles. This creates high-energy radiation that may be used to treat cancer.

Patients usually receive external-beam radiation therapy in daily treatment sessions over the course of several weeks. The number of treatment sessions depends on many factors, including the total radiation dose that will be given.

One of the most common types of external-beam radiation therapy is called 3-dimensional conformal radiation therapy (3D-CRT). 3D-CRT uses very sophisticated computer software and advanced treatment machines to deliver radiation to very precisely shaped target areas.

Many other methods of external-beam radiation therapy are currently being tested and used in cancer treatment. These methods include:

• Intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT): IMRT uses hundreds of tiny radiation beam-shaping devices, called collimators, to deliver a single dose of radiation (2). The collimators can be stationary or can move during treatment, allowing the intensity of the radiation beams to change during treatment sessions. This kind of dose modulation allows different areas of a tumor or nearby tissues to receive different doses of radiation.
  Unlike other types of radiation therapy, IMRT is planned in reverse (called inverse treatment planning). In inverse treatment planning, the radiation oncologist chooses the radiation doses to different areas of the tumor and surrounding tissue, and then a high-powered computer program calculates the required number of beams and angles of the radiation treatment (3). In contrast, during traditional (forward) treatment planning, the radiation oncologist chooses the number and angles of the radiation beams in advance and computers calculate how much dose will be delivered from each of the planned beams.
• The goal of IMRT is to increase the radiation dose to the areas that need it and reduce radiation exposure to specific sensitive areas of surrounding normal tissue. Compared with 3D-CRT, IMRT can reduce the risk of some side effects, such as damage to the salivary glands (which can cause dry mouth, or xerostomia), when the head and neck are treated with radiation therapy (4). However, with IMRT, a larger volume of normal tissue overall is exposed to radiation. Whether IMRT leads to improved control of tumor growth and better survival compared with 3D-CRT is not yet known (4).
• Image-guided radiation therapy (IGRT): In IGRT, repeated imaging scans (CT, MRI, or PET) are performed during treatment. These imaging scans are processed by computers to identify changes in a tumor’s size and location due to treatment and to allow the position of the patient or the planned radiation dose to be adjusted during treatment as needed. Repeated imaging can increase the accuracy of radiation treatment and may allow reductions in the planned volume of tissue to be treated, thereby decreasing the total radiation dose to normal tissue (5).
• Tomotherapy: Tomotherapy is a type of image-guided IMRT. A tomotherapy machine is a hybrid between a CT imaging scanner and an external-beam radiation therapy machine (6). The part of the tomotherapy machine that delivers radiation for both imaging and treatment can rotate completely around the patient in the same manner as a normal CT scanner. Tomotherapy machines can capture CT images of the patient’s tumor immediately before treatment sessions, to allow for very precise tumor targeting and sparing of normal tissue.
  Like standard IMRT, tomotherapy may be better than 3D-CRT at sparing normal tissue from high radiation doses (7). However, clinical trials comparing 3D-CRT with tomotherapy have not been conducted.
• Stereotactic radiosurgery: Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) can deliver one or more high doses of radiation to a small tumor (5, 8). SRS uses extremely accurate image-guided tumor targeting and patient positioning. Therefore, a high dose of radiation can be given without excess damage to normal tissue. SRS can be used to treat only small tumors with well-defined edges. It is most commonly used in the treatment of brain or spinal tumors and brain metastases from other cancer types. For the treatment of some brain metastases, patients may receive radiation therapy to the entire brain (called whole-brain radiation therapy) in addition to SRS.
  SRS requires the use of a head frame or other device to immobilize the patient during treatment to ensure that the high dose of radiation is delivered accurately.
• Stereotactic body radiation therapy: Stereotactic body radiation therapy (SBRT) delivers radiation therapy in fewer sessions, using smaller radiation fields and higher doses than 3D-CRT in most cases. By definition, SBRT treats tumors that lie outside the brain and spinal cord. Because these tumors are more likely to move with the normal motion of the body, and therefore cannot be targeted as accurately as tumors within the brain or spine, SBRT is usually given in more than one dose (8). SBRT can be used to treat only small, isolated tumors, including cancers in the lung and liver (8). Many doctors refer to SBRT systems by their brand names, such as the CyberKnife®.
• Proton therapy: External-beam radiation therapy can be delivered by proton beams as well as the photon beams described above. Protons are a type of charged particle. Proton beams differ from photon beams mainly in the way they deposit energy in living tissue. Whereas photons deposit energy in small packets all along their path through tissue, protons deposit much of their energy at the end of their path (called the Bragg peak) and deposit less energy along the way.
  In theory, use of protons should reduce the exposure of normal tissue to radiation, possibly allowing the delivery of higher doses of radiation to a tumor (9). Proton therapy has not yet been compared with standard external-beam radiation therapy in clinical trials (10, 11).
• Other charged particle beams: Electron beams are used to irradiate superficial tumors, such as skin cancer or tumors near the surface of the body, but they cannot travel very far through tissue (1). Therefore, they cannot treat tumors deep within the body.

Patients can discuss these different methods of radiation therapy with their doctors to see if any is appropriate for their type of cancer and if it is available in their community or through a clinical trial.

Internal radiation therapy
Internal radiation therapy (brachytherapy) is radiation delivered from radiation sources (radioactive materials) placed inside or on the body (12). Several brachytherapy techniques are used in cancer treatment. Interstitial brachytherapy uses a radiation source placed within tumor tissue, such as within a prostate tumor. Intracavitary brachytherapy uses a source placed within a surgical cavity or a body cavity, such as the chest cavity, near a tumor. Episcleral brachytherapy, which is used to treat melanoma inside the eye, uses a source that is attached to the eye.

In brachytherapy, radioactive isotopes are sealed in tiny pellets or “seeds.” These seeds are placed in patients using delivery devices, such as needles, catheters, or some other type of carrier. As the isotopes decay naturally, they give off radiation that damages nearby cancer cells.

If left in place, after a few weeks or months, the isotopes decay completely and no longer give off radiation. The seeds will not cause harm if they are left in the body (see permanent brachytherapy, described below).

Brachytherapy may be able to deliver higher doses of radiation to some cancers than external-beam radiation therapy while causing less damage to normal tissue (1, 12).

Brachytherapy can be given as a low-dose-rate or a high-dose-rate treatment:

• In low-dose-rate treatment, cancer cells receive continuous low-dose radiation from the source over a period of several days (1, 12).
• In high-dose-rate treatment, a robotic machine attached to delivery tubes placed inside the body guides one or more radioactive sources into or near a tumor, and then removes the sources at the end of each treatment session. High-dose-rate treatment can be given in one or more treatment sessions. An example of a high-dose-rate treatment is the MammoSite® system, which is being studied to treat patients with breast cancer who have undergone breast-conserving surgery.

The placement of brachytherapy sources can be temporary or permanent (1, 12):

• For permament brachytherapy, the sources are surgically sealed within the body and left there, even after all of the radiation has been given off. The remaining material (in which the radioactive isotopes were sealed) does not cause any discomfort or harm to the patient. Permanent brachytherapy is a type of low-dose-rate brachytherapy.
• For temporary brachytherapy, tubes (catheters) or other carriers are used to deliver the radiation sources, and both the carriers and the radiation sources are removed after treatment. Temporary brachytherapy can be either low-dose-rate or high-dose-rate treatment.

Doctors can use brachytherapy alone or in addition to external-beam radiation therapy to provide a “boost” of radiation to a tumor while sparing surrounding normal tissue (12).

Systemic radiation therapy
In systemic radiation therapy, a patient swallows or receives an injection of a radioactive substance, such as radioactive iodine or a radioactive substance bound to a monoclonal antibody.

Radioactive iodine (¹³¹I) is a type of systemic radiation therapy commonly used to help treat some types of thyroid cancer. Thyroid cells naturally take up radioactive iodine.

For systemic radiation therapy for some other types of cancer, a monoclonal antibody helps target the radioactive substance to the right place. The antibody joined to the radioactive substance travels through the blood, locating and killing tumor cells. For example:

• The drug ibritumomab tiuxetan (Zevalin®) has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of certain types of B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). The antibody part of this drug recognizes and binds to a protein found on the surface of B lymphocytes.
• The combination drug regimen of tositumomab and iodine I 131 tositumomab (Bexxar®) has been approved for the treatment of certain types of NHL. In this regimen, nonradioactive tositumomab antibodies are given to patients first, followed by treatment with tositumomab antibodies that have ¹³¹I attached. Tositumomab recognizes and binds to the same protein on B lymphocytes as ibritumomab. The nonradioactive form of the antibody helps protect normal B lymphocytes from being damaged by radiation from ¹³¹I.

Many other systemic radiation therapy drugs are in clinical trials for different cancer types.
Some systemic radiation therapy drugs relieve pain from cancer that has spread to the bone (bone metastases). This is a type of palliative radiation therapy. The radioactive drugs samarium-153-lexidronam (Quadramet®) and strontium-89 chloride (Metastron®) are examples of radiopharmaceuticals used to treat pain from bone metastases (13).

Why are some types of radiation therapy given in many small doses?

Patients who receive most types of external-beam radiation therapy usually have to travel to the hospital or an outpatient facility up to 5 days a week for several weeks. One dose (a single fraction) of the total planned dose of radiation is given each day. Occasionally, two treatments a day are given.
Most types of external-beam radiation therapy are given in once-daily fractions. There are two main reasons for once-daily treatment:

• To minimize the damage to normal tissue.
• To increase the likelihood that cancer cells are exposed to radiation at the points in the cell cycle when they are most vulnerable to DNA damage (1, 14).

In recent decades, doctors have tested whether other fractionation schedules are helpful (1), including:

• Accelerated fractionation—treatment given in larger daily or weekly doses to reduce the number of weeks of treatment.
• Hyperfractionation—smaller doses of radiation given more than once a day.
• Hypofractionation—larger doses given once a day or less often to reduce the number of treatments.

Researchers hope that different types of treatment fractionation may either be more effective than traditional fractionation or be as effective but more convenient.

When will a patient get radiation therapy?

A patient may receive radiation therapy before, during, or after surgery. Some patients may receive radiation therapy alone, without surgery or other treatments. Some patients may receive radiation therapy and chemotherapy at the same time. The timing of radiation therapy depends on the type of cancer being treated and the goal of treatment (cure or palliation).

Radiation therapy given before surgery is called pre-operative or neoadjuvant radiation. Neoadjuvant radiation may be given to shrink a tumor so it can be removed by surgery and be less likely to return after surgery (1).

Radiation therapy given during surgery is called intraoperative radiation therapy (IORT). IORT can be external-beam radiation therapy (with photons or electrons) or brachytherapy. When radiation is given during surgery, nearby normal tissues can be physically shielded from radiation exposure (15). IORT is sometimes used when normal structures are too close to a tumor to allow the use of external-beam radiation therapy.

Radiation therapy given after surgery is called post-operative or adjuvant radiation therapy.

Radiation therapy given after some types of complicated surgery (especially in the abdomen or pelvis) may produce too many side effects; therefore, it may be safer if given before surgery in these cases (1).

The combination of chemotherapy and radiation therapy given at the same time is sometimes called chemoradiation or radiochemotherapy. For some types of cancer, the combination of chemotherapy and radiation therapy may kill more cancer cells (increasing the likelihood of a cure), but it can also cause more side effects (1, 14).

After cancer treatment, patients receive regular follow-up care from their oncologists to monitor their health and to check for possible cancer recurrence. Detailed information about follow-up care can be found at NCI's Follow-up Medical Care page.

Does radiation therapy make a patient radioactive?

External-beam radiation does not make a patient radioactive.
During temporary brachytherapy treatments, while the radioactive material is inside the body, the patient is radioactive; however, as soon as the material is removed, the patient is no longer radioactive. For temporary brachytherapy, the patient will usually stay in the hospital in a special room that shields other people from the radiation.

During permanent brachytherapy, the implanted material will be radioactive for several days, weeks, or months after the radiation source is put in place. During this time, the patient is radioactive. However, the amount of radiation reaching the surface of the skin is usually very low. Nonetheless, this radiation can be detected by radiation monitors and contact with pregnant woman and young children may be restricted for a few days or weeks.

Some types of systemic radiation therapy may temporarily make a patient’s bodily fluids (such as saliva, urine, sweat, or stool) emit a low level of radiation. Patients receiving systemic radiation therapy may need to limit their contact with other people during this time, and especially avoid contact with children younger than 18 and pregnant women.
A patient’s doctor or nurse will provide more information to family members and caretakers if any of these special precautions are needed. Over time (usually days or weeks), the radioactive material retained within the body will break down so that no radiation can be measured outside the patient’s body.

What are the potential side effects of radiation therapy?

Radiation therapy can cause both early (acute) and late (chronic) side effects. Acute side effects occur during treatment, and chronic side effects occur months or even years after treatment ends (1). The side effects that develop depend on the area of the body being treated, the dose given per day, the total dose given, the patient’s general medical condition, and other treatments given at the same time.
Acute radiation side effects are caused by damage to rapidly dividing normal cells in the area being treated. These effects include skin irritation or damage at regions exposed to the radiation beams. Examples include damage to the salivary glands or hair loss when the head or neck area is treated, or urinary problems when the lower abdomen is treated.

Most acute effects disappear after treatment ends, though some (like salivary gland damage) can be permanent. The drug amifostine (Ethyol®) can help protect the salivary glands from radiation damage if it is given during treatment. Amifostine is the only drug approved by the FDA to protect normal tissues from radiation during treatment. This type of drug is called a radioprotector. Other potential radioprotectors are being tested in clinical trials.

Fatigue is a common side effect of radiation therapy regardless of which part of the body is treated. Nausea with or without vomiting is common when the abdomen is treated and occurs sometimes when the brain is treated. Medications are available to help prevent or treat nausea and vomiting during treatment.
Late side effects of radiation therapy may or may not occur. Depending on the area of the body treated, late side effects can include (1):

• Fibrosis (the replacement of normal tissue with scar tissue, leading to restricted movement of the affected area).
• Damage to the bowels, causing diarrhea and bleeding.
• Memory loss.
• Infertility (inability to have a child).
• Rarely, a second cancer caused by radiation exposure.

Second cancers that develop after radiation therapy depend on the part of the body that was treated (16). For example, girls treated with radiation to the chest for Hodgkin lymphoma have an increased risk of developing breast cancer later in life. In general, the lifetime risk of a second cancer is highest in people treated for cancer as children or adolescents (16).
Whether or not a patient experiences late side effects depends on other aspects of their cancer treatment in addition to radiation therapy, as well as their individual risk factors. Some chemotherapy drugs, genetic risk factors, and lifestyle factors (such as smoking) can also increase the risk of late side effects.
When suggesting radiation therapy as part of a patient’s cancer treatment, the radiation oncologist will carefully weigh the known risks of treatment against the potential benefits for each patient (including relief of symptoms, shrinking a tumor, or potential cure). The results of hundreds of clinical trials and doctors’ individual experiences help radiation oncologists decide which patients are likely to benefit from radiation therapy.
A more comprehensive discussion of acute and late side effects from radiation therapy, as well as ways to cope with these side effects, can be found in the NCI publications Radiation Therapy and You: Support for People With Cancer and the Radiation Therapy Side Effects Series.

What research is being done to improve radiation therapy?

Doctors and other scientists are conducting research studies called clinical trials to learn how to use radiation therapy to treat cancer more safely and effectively. Clinical trials allow researchers to examine the effectiveness of new treatments in comparison with standard ones, as well as to compare the side effects of the treatments.

Researchers are working on improving image-guided radiation so that it provides real-time imaging of the tumor target during treatment. Real-time imaging could help compensate for normal movement of the internal organs from breathing and for changes in tumor size during treatment.

Researchers are also studying radiosensitizers and radioprotectors, chemicals that modify a cell's response to radiation:

• Radiosensitizers are drugs that make cancer cells more sensitive to the effects of radiation therapy. Several agents are under study as radiosensitizers. In addition, some anticancer drugs, such as 5-fluorouracil and cisplatin, make cancer cells more sensitive to radiation therapy.
• Radioprotectors (also called radioprotectants) are drugs that protect normal cells from damage caused by radiation therapy. These drugs promote the repair of normal cells exposed to radiation. Many agents are currently being studied as potential radioprotectors.

The use of carbon ion beams in radiation therapy is being investigated by researchers, but, at this time, the use of these beams remains experimental. Carbon ion beams are available at only a few medical centers around the world. They are not currently available in the United States. Researchers hope that carbon ion beams may be effective in treating some tumors that are resistant to traditional radiation therapy.

People with cancer who are interested in taking part in a clinical trial should talk with their doctor. A comprehensive list of current clinical trials is available on NCI’s website.
NCI's Cancer Information Service (CIS) can also provide information about clinical trials and help with clinical trial searches. Call the CIS at 1–800–4–CANCER (1–800–422–6237).

Selected References

1. Lawrence TS, Ten Haken RK, Giaccia A. Principles of Radiation Oncology. In: DeVita VT Jr., Lawrence TS, Rosenberg SA, editors. Cancer: Principles and Practice of Oncology. 8^th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2008.
2. Taylor A, Powell ME. Intensity-modulated radiotherapy—what is it? Cancer Imaging 2004; 4(2):68–73. [PubMed Abstract]
3. Gaspar LE, Ding M. A review of intensity-modulated radiation therapy. Current Oncology Reports 2008; 10(4):294–299. [PubMed Abstract]
4. Veldeman L, Madani I, Hulstaert F. et al. Evidence behind use of intensity-modulated radiotherapy: A systematic review of comparative clinical studies. Lancet Oncology 2008; 9(4):367–375. Erratum in: Lancet Oncology 2008; 9(6):513. [PubMed Abstract]
5. Noda SE, Lautenschlaeger T, Siedow MR, et al. Technological advances in radiation oncology for central nervous system tumors. Seminars in Radiation Oncology 2009; 19(3):179–186. [PubMed Abstract]
6. Detorie NA. Helical tomotherapy: A new tool for radiation therapy. Journal of the American College of Radiology 2008; 5(1):63–66.
7. Fenwick JD, Tomé WA, Soisson ET, et al. Tomotherapy and other innovative IMRT delivery systems. Seminars in Radiation Oncology 2006; 16(4):199–208. [PubMed Abstract]
8. Kavanagh BD, Timmerman RD. Stereotactic radiosurgery and stereotactic body radiation therapy: An overview of technical considerations and clinical applications. Hematology/Oncology Clinics of North America 2006; 20(1):87–95. [PubMed Abstract]
9. Schulz-Ertner D, Jäkel O, Schlegel W. Radiation therapy with charged particles. Seminars in Radiation Oncology 2006; 16(4):249–259. [PubMed Abstract]
10. Brada M, Pijls-Johannesma M, De Ruysscher D. Proton therapy in clinical practice: Current clinical evidence. Journal of Clinical Oncology 2007; 25(8):965–970.
11. Olsen DR, Bruland OS, Frykholm G, Norderhaug, IN. Proton therapy—a systematic review of clinical effectiveness. Radiotherapy and Oncology: Journal of the European Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology 2007; 83(2):123–132. [PubMed Abstract]
12. Patel RR, Arthur DW. The emergence of advanced brachytherapy techniques for common malignancies. Hematology/Oncology Clinics of North America 2006; 20(1):97–118. [PubMed Abstract]
13. Lam MG, de Klerk JM, van Rijk PP, Zonnenberg, BA. Bone seeking radiopharmaceuticals for palliation of pain in cancer patients with osseous metastases. Anti-cancer Agents in Medicinal Chemistry 2007; 7(4):381–397. [PubMed Abstract]
14. Connell PP, Hellman S. Advances in radiotherapy and implications for the next century: A historical perspective. Cancer Research 2009; 69(2):383–392.
15. Calvo FA, Meirino RM, Orecchia R. Intraoperative radiation therapy first part: Rationale and techniques. Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology 2006; 59(2):106–115. [PubMed Abstract]
16. Travis LB, Hodgson D, Allan JM, Van Leeuwen FE. Second Cancers. In: DeVita VT Jr., Lawrence TS, Rosenberg SA, editors. Cancer: Principles and Practice of Oncology. 8th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2008.

Related Resources

• Radiation Therapy and You: Support for People With Cancer
• Radiation Therapy to Treat Cancer

• Reviewed: June 30, 2010

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Radiation Therapy Side Effect Series has practical steps and advice to help you manage nine (9) side effects from radiation therapy, so you feel better during treatment:

• Diarrhea (PDF)
• Fatigue (PDF)
• Hair loss (PDF)
• Mouth and throat changes (PDF)
• Nausea and vomiting (PDF)
• Sexuality and fertility in men (PDF)
• Sexuality and fertility in women (PDF)
• Skin changes (PDF)
• Urination changes (PDF)

These colorful sheets are designed to help you learn how to manage these side effects. They include engaging quotes and questions to ask your health care provider, so you can learn more. Health conditions that may need urgent medical care are highlighted.

A New and Natural Method of Treatment of Peptic Ulcer Disease

FROM NOVEMBER 1979 TO MAY 1982,  I had the "honor" of serving time at "Evin" prison, Tehran , Iran. Evin is the historical prison which has set the pace of revolution in the country. It is composed of several "blocks." At Evin, people experienced the course, dimensions, and (as a result of the power struggle from within) the transformation of the revolution. The conditions and the emotional aspects of life there could not be compared with the experiences or settings most readers have known. 

  A predominantly starch diet was available. There was no shortage of medication. A critical shortage of cell space at the onset woefully deteriorated. Any professional contact had to be in the presence of the guards, who were always suspicious! I was lucky to have been able to make my observations in Block 3 when I was waiting clarification of my own situation. There I could follow-up my patients before movement became restricted and inmates were confined to their completely isolated individual or group cells.

  Men and women from all walks of life, of all ages, under the prevailing uniform condition there, unfolded their particular response to different levels of stress.

  Clinically diagnosed peptic ulcer disease was one major manifestation of this stress.Younger people (men much more than women) presented the typical symptoms and signs, from simple epigastric pain experienced for the first time, to recurrence and exacerbation of complaints in patients with chronic ulcer disease. Symptoms even reached the point of semi-consciousness from the intensity of pain, suggesting impending perforation; intermittent pain during the day or night; pain which limited sleep; and continuous intense fluctuation pain. Melena with anemia and hematemesis, on many occasions, supported the clinical diagnosis.
  
  In January 1980, a chance incident forced me to treat one of the inmates , who late one night sought relief for unbearable pain, with 500 cc (two glasses) of water. His pain became less severe and then disappeared completely after 8 minutes. He was an experienced "sufferer" with a long history of repeated treatment, and found relief of pain with water a surprising but welcome experience, particularly as it permitted him to avoid any contact with the guards. He agreed to take the same amount of water every 3 hours as if he were maintaining a diet of nine "meals" a day, during his waking hours; he took three regular meals and six "water meals." The water intake was regular. Food was eaten as it arrived, to allow for the fluctuating time of arrival. The little pain he felt in between his "meals" became less severe and disappeared totally after 3 days. I told him to maintain this diet for 6 weeks. he was given no other type of medication. He had achieved a "clinical cure" with water only for the duration of his stay of a few months in the environment that had "caused" the symptomatic recurrence of an ulcer previously diagnosed by x-ray.
  
  The result of this simple method of "treatment" seemed now too good to be abandoned or ignored. I pointed out the advantages of not depending on medication by this method, under the circumstances, especially to those who had a long history and had tried various methods of treatment with the number of medications available. Those who tried the method were satisfied. The final acceptance by everyone in Block 3 came when a man in his 20s, who had a long history of duodenal ulcer disease, developed another episode of pain at 1 P.M. His symptoms gradually worsened; antacids that he had taken and the several tablets of cimetadine he had kept against such a day did not help. By 11 P.M., he had so much pain that he had become semiconscious. Absolute relief came in 20 minutes after swallowing 500 cc water followed by another 250 cc water 15 minutes later. This total recovery was a  source of amazement to me and to the young man's friends who could not believe his transformation. This simple method became the accepted standard treatment for peptic ulcer disease pain in Block 3 of Evin prison, accepted even by those who had political obsessions and personal prejudice.

The group of men in Block 3 were slowly changing because of investigation and sentencing. More and more, these men who suffered ulcer disease pain accepted this "new method" of treatment (recommended even now) now consisted of one glass of water (250cc) half an hour before meal, and an equal amount 2½ hours after each meal (i.e., 1,500 cc of water /day of 3 meals). The patients were told they could drink an extra amount if they were thirsty. The duration of treatment recommended was between 4 and 6 weeks, in keeping with the average time an actual ulcer would take to heal. 

  A "maintenance course" of a glass of water (250 cc) before breakfast and a similar amount 2½ hours after the three meals in "severe stress cases" proved most effective.

  High urine volume and, therefore, sodium loss produced cramps in some of the first patients. As a result, extra salt intake with meals was recommended. Some of the people taking this treatment had to get up in the middle of the night to urinate. These two physiological side effects were the only observed disadvantages to this method of treatment.
  
  The repeated positive results even in patients with a long history of duodenal ulcer disease who responded to treatment with water, who even chose this method in preference to the standard medication methods of treatment, even when antacids, H2 blocking agents, and anticholinergics were readily available, indicated to me that we were dealing with a physiological correctable or controllable state. As a result of lucky access to printed information on peptides of the GI tract, the subsequent stage of my clinical formulations became feasible. 

  During the last part of confinement, I became involved at the main prison hospital which drew patients from section clinics. Many patients with hematemesis* and/or melena with low blood pressure and/or low hematocrit were seen. They were treated with blood transfusion (up to 8-10 X 250-450 cc of blood to maintain a systolic blood pressure of 90 - 100 mm mercury or a hematocrit of 30). Except for the first ill patient who was given cimetidine (4 tablets of 200 mg for 2 days only, with a supplement of a late night injection of cimetidine again only for 2 days), none of the patients received chemical medication. They were provided with a large jug of strong sugar-sweetened water, with instructions to drink a glass every hour. This period gradually increased to a glass every 1½ hours and then every 2 hours. After 36-48 hours when a feeling of "hunger" would begin, light food with water according to the foregoing schedule was the only treatment needed; i.e., once again, the clinical improvement was definite and no medicines (antacid or H2 blocking agents) were necessary to reestablish improvement. No surgery became necessary. There was no mortality from GI bleeding in these patients. No recurrence of bleeding was seen.

[NOTE: *Hematemesis or haematemesis is the vomiting of blood. The source is generally the upper gastrointestinal tract, typically above the suspensory muscle of duodenum. Patients can easily confuse it with hemoptysis (coughing up blood), although the latter is more common. Hematemesis "is always an important sign". Hematemesis indicates that the bleeding is from the upper gastrointestinal tract, usually from the esophagus, stomach, or proximal duodenum. Occasionally hemoptysis or vomiting of swallowed blood from epistaxis can be confused with hematemesis.]

 [NOTE: The hematocrit, also known by several other names, is the volume percentage of red blood cells in blood. It is normally 45% for men and 40% for women. Blood is composed mainly of red blood cells and white blood cells suspended in an almost clear fluid called serum. The hematocrit test indicates the percentage of blood by volume that is composed of red blood cells. The condition called "anemia" results from having too few red blood cells.]

The authorities, who by now could not block to ignore these results any longer, conducted an unofficial trial of their own. They had a  questionnaire, which I drew up, reproduced in multiple copies. In a closed "off-limits" section with 600 persons, 240 (40%) were using medication to treat their "ulcer" pain. These people filled out the form and went on the water treatment. The result was dramatic. Water treatment for peptic ulcer disease became the standard form of treatment for that institution and has survived beyond my enthusiasm and incarceration!

  During the 2½ years in prison, I must have seen well over 3,000 patients with ulcer symprom. I follow-up about 600. The follow-up information from the rest came to me from their guards, from physicians in charge of other sections, and from chance meetings or messages received. The almost total lack of demand for antacid from the pharmacy during the last few months was an indicator of the success of this treatment, which had spread to all the sections. Even the prison authorities adopted this method for themselves, for they too suffered from peptic ulcer! The final recognition came when my captors, who earlier would have shot me with the least excuse, later confirmed in writing to the Medical Council, the  effectiveness of this new method of treatment of peptic ulcer disease, requesting them to inform the medical profession of Iran through their journal. 

  The implications of this method of treatment seem important, especially the importance or usefulness of "a glass of water" as a diagnostic tool. The following points deserve emphasis:

  1. Experience with thousands of patients showed that simple, clinical peptic ulcer disease complaints, the ones in whom a doctor would not suspect a complication, respond to this method of treatment. One glass of water (250 cc) relieves pain within 3 - 8 minutes. Sometimes a little more may be necessary.

  2. A few cases of "appendix pain" without other clinical manifestations also responded and became pain-free. Be it from a response of the ileocoecal valve or a cutaneous representation of common thoracic nerve roots, this observation indicates that a



site of pain other than epigastric may herald a clinical picture of duodenal ulcer (d.u) disease. 

  3. Of the few patients who did not respond to this treatment, further questioning and investigation revealed other pathology. A colleague's case diagnosed a "d.u." when he adopted this method of treatment for his patients (he is conducting an open trial), developed severe "pain and signs" precipitating the need for diagnostic surgery. The condition proved to be acute cholecystitis.

  4. In the majority of patients, the relief of pain was preceded by eructation of gas "indicating" that the passage of diluted acid was made possible after what may be relaxation of the pyloric sphincter. 






  In view of this experience, I suggest that a different interpretation of the "absolute" validity of the design and the conclusions of the "randomized clinical trials" on peptic ulcer is necessary. The water used to swallow a "pill," be it the actual medicine under test or the placebo control (up to now considered inert), has proven to have a definite (physiological) effect of its own. It is possible to theorize that water has its effect before the pharmacologic substance under study achieved optimum blood levels. My experience also suggests that the high cure rate with placebo in controlled studies reported up to now were not without a good reason. Any interpretation or comparison of medication against "placebo" should be reconsidered, due to the body's response to water as a "natural medicine," although in insufficient volume and not at the peak of secretion of acid (in d.u. patients). I think that water must be essential in maintaining homeostasis through the appropriate peptides in the region. 

Acknowledgments
  In this preliminary observation, the author thanks all the friends and foes who made these observations possible; the dedicated colleagues still in captivity who were of constant support and who have developed genuine belief in this method of treatment : Dr. David Fulmer of Princeton Medical Group who became a supporting voice even before seeing the author; Dr M. Litt, chairman of the Bio-Engineering Department , University of  Pennsylvania, who has given the author temporary access to the facilities of the University:  Dr. Mary Berwick, Bio-Medical Library, University of Pennsylvania, whose search indicates that the author must face the questions on this particular method of treatment alone; and finally Professor Iraj Zandi, University of Pennsylvavia, for his enthusiastic support. 

F. Batmanghelidj, M.D.
Princeton, New Jersey

Write for reprints to: F. Batmanghelidj, M.D., P.O.Box 1512, Princeton, New Jersey 08540. 

To determine how much water you need each day, divide your body weight in half. The answer is the approximate number of water ounces you should drink daily.

Joint Cartilage and Bone Circulation

The anatomical parts that suffer the most when there is shortage of water the human body are those without a direct vascular circulation. The anatomical parts that depend for the supply of their needs on the seepage of tissue fluids through another organ suffer most. They will not receive what they need ; the mediating organ will trim its transit routes. The anatomical parts that are excellent examples of this thesis are the joint cartilage (see Fig 28 and Fig 29) and the intervertebral discs. I have explained the mechanisms involved in disc hydration. I will now try to explain the basic problem in the feeding of joint cartilage that is the root cause of damage in the rheumatoid joints and their pain signal, be they the finger joints, the knees joints, or the vertebral joints. 







Remember , there is no functioning "dead" part in the body that is nature-designed. All tissues of the human body, including bone, cartilage, and even the disc core are  composed of living cells that have to remain alive and be reproductive of daughter cells (except the brain cells that are not replaced before they die) for that particular organ to function. The dead  tissues (group of cells) is eaten away by the "garbage collectors" and new tissues replaces them. For the tissue to remain alive, the most simple and initial need is water itself, and then whatever food nutrients supply the water can bring with it. 


 Fig.28: The normal finger joint demonstrating the common arterial supply to the area. The artery to the capsule can dilate to bring increased blood circulation to the soft tissues of the joint. the artery that goes through the bone canal is restricted by the size of its passageway. 


 The bone connections of the fingers, hands, and most movement-supporting joints are separated by means of cartilage is connected are thin, whereas the wall of their shaft are made of solid and thicker tube-like bones. The artery of the bone goes through and divides in the canal systems in the thick section of the bone. 



The canals in the bone act as though they are straightjackets (see fig.28) that may not permit dilation of the vessels, even if the vessels themselves could dilate to increase the circulation to the area (the very mechanism that brings greater circulation to the capsule of the joint, whereas the artery that goes through the bone is severely restricted by the fixed size of its canal through the bone). Each bone of the skeleton has only one (very rarely two) artery to feed that bone. Inside the hollow spaces of these bones,  nature has housed the manufacturing system of the blood cells ー red cells as well as all the variations of white cells. Nature gives  priority to the development of these cells, which entirely depend on many different functions of water in particular. When there is dehydration, there will not be enough water to supply the end bone cartilage with its needs  ーFig.29; the blood manufacturing system exercises its priority by means of specially active cation pumps that force the water into the expanding blood cells, which must consist of at least 75 percent water. 




Fig.29

Fig. 29: The left side of the figure represents a normal flow of "water" and nutrient needs of the cartilage covering of the joint bones. The right side represents a decreased flow of "water" to the cartilage covering through the bone. The arterial supply to the capsule becomes increased, causing swelling and effusion into the joint. This route of supply of nutrients is not completely effective for the growing end of the cartilage covering the bones. Forced activity of the joint will damage the cartilage and leave the bone exposed and permanently damaged. 






A well-hydrated human body and normal direction of water flow to the joint cartilage:
• The artery to the capsule( normal size).

• The direction of the water flow to the cartilage in a well-hydrate body is towards the bone joint.

• Normal cartilage covering the bone heads of the joint.

• The artery to the capsule (normal size)

A dehydrated human body exposing reduced local flow of water through the bone marrow causing joint cartilage damage:
• Enlarged capsule artery.

• The inflamed and thickened joint cartilage.

• Flow of water and proteins to the joint through the capsule.

• Irregular head of bones after the loss of cartilage.

• Reduced rate of water flow through the bone marrow in a dehydrated body. 

Earthing

For Health and EMF protection.

In the last hundred or so years we have lost something vital for our health and wellbeing: our electrical connection to the Earth.  With the advent of rubber and plastic soled shoes, and insulating mattresses in insulating houses, we spend our days and nights disconnected from the Earth.

One only has to walk barefoot in the grass or on a beach to regain this connection and feel the nurturing effects, and yet in our modern lives it is not always practical to do so.  There is a very physical and scientifically verifiable reason why we feel better when we do this:

The Earth is a massive reservoir of negatively charged free electrons.  Without a connection to this reservoir, the cells in our body are unable to balance the positive charge which results from things like electron-deficient free radicals.  The effect of excess positive charge in the blood can be seen very clearly by the way in which the cells are attracted to clump together (see Scientific Research).

There are various things we can do to balance this electron-deficiency, such as anti-oxidant rich foods and drinking living water.  But what has been largely overlooked until recently is receiving free electrons from the Earth.

It's such a simple thing and yet the effect can be so profound.  In our modern lives we can't always be outside and barefoot, and so the products offered on this website are designed to provide this electrical connection to the Earth in a convenient and practical way.

There is another effect of grounding which is particularly relevant in our modern electrical world.  Our environment is full of a wide spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, from computers, mobile phones & masts, radio & TV broadcasts, WiFi, Bluetooth, power lines, domestic wiring, and other electrical appliances.

This electromagnetic radiation induces voltages in our bodies, disrupting the trillions of subtle electrical communications which are a vital part of the function of our body's systems.  By being grounded to the Earth we greatly reduce the levels of these induced voltages. 

We are electrical beings, living on an electrical planet, and our connection is vital for our health and well-being.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

The effect of grounding on the blood

One of the most dramatic demonstrations of the benefits of grounding is the effect it has on the blood.

On the right are darkfield microscope images of blood taken from three individuals just before and after forty minutes of grounding.

The before images are on the left, the after on the right.  The pictures clearly show a dramatic thinning and decoupling of the blood cells.

The blood samples were taken during research into grounding by Dr Stephen Sinatra MD.

The video clip on above ⇧ shows the results of some similar blood tests which were performed on some volunteers live during the recent Longevity Now Conference 2010.  Presented by David Wolfe.

Or watch the full video on YouTube here.

Further reading

For further reading, case studies and personal reports, we recommended a visit to www.earthinginstitute.net

Another great resource is the book ⇩ ‘Earthing’ by Clinton Ober.

⇗The authoritative book on Earthing/Grounding.  Highly recommended for a deeper understanding of why earthing is so important to health.

This is the English version of the book.  It is also available in German, Korean, Chinese, Japanese, Russian, Spanish, Arabic, Polish, Danish, Dutch, Swedish, Italian, French, Finnish, Serbo-Croatian and Czech.

Price: £13.95  for Quantity:1

ESD JOURNAL

January, 2000

http://www.esdjournal.com/articles/cober/ground.htm

GROUNDING THE HUMAN BODY TO NEUTRALIZE

BIOELECTRICAL STRESS FROM STATIC ELECTRICITY AND EMFs.

A. Clinton Ober

Ventura, CA

INTRODUCTION

From the beginning of time, except for the past few generations, humans lived their entire lives primarily in direct physical contact with the earth; therefore, it is assumed that humans throughout evolution were naturally grounded.

  In modern times, humans have insulated themselves from contact with the earth by wearing synthetic soled shoes and living in homes that elevate the body above the earth. Consequently, humans are no longer naturally grounded and now the body becomes charged with static electricity and radiated electric fields can now create unnatural weak electric currents with-in the body. [1]

  This work provides evidence that loss of natural ground allows extraneous electricity to interfere with and stress the normal bio-electrical activities of the body, which thereby interferes with natural health and sleep.

  Today everyone is physically stressed, their muscles are tense, back and joint pain are the norm and most do not sleep well. These conditions all relate to excess stimulation of the nervous system and/or interference of the bio-electrical communications between cells.

  For instance, muscles only respond to bio-electrical communications from nerves. When these communications are interfered with muscles become tense and remain tight. This leads to fatigue, skeletal problems and pain.

To what extent do EMFs create abnormal electrical activity in/or on the body?

  In 1995 the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences [NIEHS] and the US Department of Energy [DOE] stated that common exposure to electric and magnetic fields [EMFs] from household electrical wires now produce unnatural weak electric currents between human cells. In other words 24 hours a day if you live and sleep in a modern home. [1]

These unnatural currents in the body are the direct result of the body being insulated from ground contact. The question is do these currents along with the static electricity created on the body from carpets etc. interfere with normal bio-electrical functions?

An indication is; according to the American Institute of Stress, over 75% of all visits to primary care physicians are now for stress related health conditions.

The description of stress is; a state of continuous anxiety and nervousness in which muscles become and remain tensed. Stress is now confirmed to be a primary contributor to cardiovascular disease, cancer, gastrointestinal, skin, neurological and emotional disorders, and a host of disorders linked to immune system disturbances ranging from the common cold and herpes, to arthritis and AIDS. [2]

In the late 1960s, when humans were first widely diagnosed as being stressed, synthetic soled shoes, carpets and the like had just become popular and the use electricity and household electrical devices tripled from the previous generation.

Do these unnatural weak electric currents in the body also interfere with sleep? According to the National Sleep Foundation's Sleep-2000 report [3], nearly two thirds of American adults [62%] now suffer from sleep problems. Americans have the most comfortable beds and the most protected sleep environments in the world. Yet, in traditional societies where most humans sleep on animal skins, grass mats or directly on the ground, sleep problems do not exist. [4]
As for Americans, most now sleep within 12 inches of electrical wires hidden in the wall at the head of their bed and with electric cords around or near the bed. All of which emanate e-fields throughout the night and create weak electric currents in the body [1].

The fact that the majority of people, with the best health care in human history, now increasingly suffer from poor sleep and stress related health problems suggests that something, largely unknown to the health community and public, is wrong. The dramatic change from the body being naturally grounded to now conducting unnatural weak electric currents between cells is the most likely

candidate. Circumstantial evidence is provided by the fact that humans in traditional societies that maintain contact with the earth do not experience the common sleep and stress related health problems of the modern world [4]. Nor do the animals that live in direct contact with the earth.

Evidence that is more conclusive was reported by the NIEHS and the DOE [1] that in some laboratory studies the biological effects of EMFs are:

-Changes in functions of cells and tissue

-Accelerated tumor growth

-Decrease in the hormone melatonin

-Changes in biorhythms

-Alterations of immune system

-Changes in human brain activity and heart rate.

The question is; by restoring natural ground to the body and thereby neutralizing these weak electric currents in the body and static electricity on the body, do muscle relax and normal sleep return?

In search of the answer the following test was performed.

METHOD AND MATERIALS 

To effectively restore ground contact for an extended period, test subjects slept on dissipative carbon fiber mattress pads placed under their fitted sheets, connected via a ground wire [protected with an inline 1/100 amp fast blow fuse], to a ground rod driven into the earth near their bedroom window. The grounded mattress pads were designed to replicate the ground plane of the earth in the bed.

Sleep disturbances along with chronic muscle and joint pain, which the subjects had been experiencing for at least six months, were recorded to establish a base line.

The test was for a period of 30 days.

SELECTION OF PARTICIPANTS

An advertisement, distributed to ten beauty salons in Ventura County, CA solicited individuals experiencing sleep problems accompanied by tense muscles and/or chronic joint pain to participate in the study. Of the respondents, sixty individuals participated.

Age of subjects was between 23 and 74 years

Male subjects = 22

Female subjects = 38

Declared sleep problems = 100%

Declared chronic muscle or joint pain = 100%

The subjects were randomly divided into two groups. The first group of thirty, slept on carbon fiber mattress pads connected to a dedicated earth ground, just outside their bedroom window. The second control group of thirty, slept on carbon fiber mattress pads but were not connected to an earth ground.

E-field created charge on their bodies were recorded with an AC voltmeter connected to the earth ground and body contact made with a hand held probe or an EKG electrode patch.

E-field created charge measured on subject's bodies while lying in their beds were as follows:

Test subjects Control subjects

Less than 1 volt 2 2

1 volts or more 28 28

2 volts or more * 16 15

3 volts or more 8 6

4 volts or more 4 3

5 volts or more 3 2

*All subjects averaged 2+ volts on their bodies while lying in their beds.

E-field created charge measured on test subject's bodies after grounding: averaged 10 millivolts or less. 

RESULTS

Test Subjects* Control Subjects**

Categories: Same Improved Same Improved

Time to fall asleep 4=15% 23=85% 20=87% 3=13%

Quality of sleep 2=7% 25=93% 20=87% 3=13%

Wake feeling rested 0=0% 27=100% 20=87% 3=13%

Muscles stiffness & pain 5=18% 22=82% 23=100% 0=0 %

Chronic back and/or joint pain 7=26% 20=74% 23=100% 0=0%

General well-being 6=22% 21=78% 20=87% 3=13%

*Reports not received from three participants.

**Reports not received from seven participants.

DISCUSSION

The purpose of this work was to provide evidence that when the human body is grounded it is naturally protected from static electricity and radiated electric fields. The meter reading of the grounded subject proved this true. The benefits of grounding the body were expected to relax muscles and improve sleep. This

also proved to be true.

Worthy of mention is that several subjects in the study stated they also experienced significant relief from asthmatic and respiratory conditions, rheumatoid arthritis, PMS, sleep apnea and hypertension, while sleeping grounded. These unexpected results indicate that loss of ground contact plays a much larger role in overall health then was anticipated at the start of this study.

ADDITIONAL SUPPORT TO THESE FINDINGS

In the May 1999 NIEH-EMF RAPID report, mention is made that

reported biological effects to humans exposed to EMFs, such as changes in melatonin levels cannot be confirmed in animal studies. Therefore, the actual effects to humans are inconclusive. [5]

In the animal studies, sheep exposed to EMFs from a power line were reported to have experienced no change in melatonin levels. The sheep, which walked and slept directly on the ground were naturally grounded throughout the experiment. The fact that melatonin levels remain normal in sheep when grounded, supports these findings that when humans are grounded their sleep improves.

● Personal note from Roger Coghill, MA Biol. MI Biol. MA Environ Mgt. a leading research scientist and author specialized in the field of Bioelectromagnetics, the science investigating the interaction of electricity with organic life. 

Yes, I would be prepared to believe that grounding the body will help dispel any extraneous electric fields which could otherwise interfere with the body’s own endogenous fields. We have found that these latter are vital for well-being, with adverse effects if disturbed. It could also be a way forward for protection against high frequency radiation.

Best, Roger Coghill 12/05/99

● Comments from Russell Whitten, D.C. Ojai, CA 8/25/00

Prompted by the results of a patient, who participated in Mr. Ober's

study, I grounded the beds of 35 additional patients over a two-month period. The bed e-field measurements in this group ranged from .3 to 47 volts before grounding. A variety of health benefits occurred in this time. Many of the improvements, such as increased energy and athletic performance, can be attributed to the improved sleep that almost everyone reported. However, in many cases metabolic and hormonal conditions responded as well. Chronic back pain went away in several cases, stiff arthritic joints became more flexible, asthma attacks subsided and PMS symptoms lessened greatly. These indications confirm that e -fields do affect the body.

CONCLUSIONS

The important finding of this study is that the human body when grounded is naturally protected from static electricity and the weak electric currents created in the body by radiated electric fields. The benefits of grounding the body are; sleep significantly improves, muscles relax, chronic back and joint pain subsides and general health improves.

PRINCIPAL REFERENCES

1. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences and the U.S.

Department of Energy, Questions and Answers about EMF, electric and magnetic fields associated with use of electric power [1995]

2. American Institute of Stress, www.stress.org/problems

3. National Sleep Foundation, www.sleepfoundation.org/pressarchives

4. Slumbers Unexplored Landscape [1999] Carol M. Worthman,

Anthropologist, Emory University Atlanta, GA

5. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences EMF Rapid Report.

[May, 1999]

For additional information on this study or for parties interested in performing additional studies related to personal grounding and health, please contact:

Clint Ober @ 805- 844-0888 or e-mail clintober @ prodigy.net