Are We Hollow?

We are used to thinking of our human bodies as solid, and that everything that lies beneath our skin belongs to an inside world. It would be more correct to say that we are hollow. The design of the human body is much more interesting, and artistic than you may or dare think.

Running through the middle of the body is a log tunnel, the digestive tract. The space inside this tunnel (the lumen, from the Latin for light or opening inside a tubular structure), bordered by the inner layers of the mucosa, carries substances that don't belong to you. This strange exterior world flows inside you, transporting foods, liquids, substances, chemicals, and bacteria ー everything that you have swallowed and consumed. The digestive tract controls the passage of all these foreign substances, as they pass through your body from the mouth to the anus during digestion. En route, the foods you eat are assimilated and become the building blocks that make up your body, they become you. 

The digestive mucosa is the human body's customs service: a "high-intelligence service of the state." You depend on its work for your health and your life. The digestion and absorption of nutrients that it undertakes are vital functions, as essential as breathing and the beating of the heart. A bad digestion should be given equal importance to poor respiration or a cadiac condition.

Looked at in a certain way, you really are hollow. Your essence and continuity to interrupted by the lumen of this tube that runs through you carrying foreign substances; this tube is in charge of the vital functions of defence, strength, nutrition, energy, growth, construction of new tissues, and detoxification. 

What is peripheral neuropathy?

An estimated 20 million people in the United States have some form of peripheral neuropathy, a condition that develops as a result of damage to the peripheral nervous system — the vast communications network that transmits information between the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) and every other part of the body. (Neuropathy means nerve disease or damage.) Symptoms can range from numbness or tingling, to pricking sensations (paresthesia), or muscle weakness. Areas of the body may become abnormally sensitive leading to an exaggeratedly intense or distorted experience of touch (allodynia). In such cases, pain may occur in response to a stimulus that does not normally provoke pain. Severe symptoms may include burning pain (especially at night), muscle wasting, paralysis, or organ or gland dysfunction. Damage to nerves that supply internal organs may impair digestion, sweating, sexual function, and urination. In the most extreme cases, breathing may become difficult, or organ failure may occur.

Peripheral nerves send sensory information back to the brain and spinal cord, such as a message that the feet are cold. Peripheral nerves also carry signals from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles to generate movement. Damage to the peripheral nervous system interferes with these vital connections. Like static on a telephone line, peripheral neuropathy distorts and sometimes interrupts messages between the brain and spinal cord and the rest of the body.

Peripheral neuropathies can present in a variety of forms and follow different patterns. Symptoms may be experienced over a period of days, weeks, or years. They can be acute or chronic. In acute neuropathies such as Guillain-Barré syndrome (in which the body’s immune system attacks part of the peripheral nervous system and impairs sending and receiving nerve signals), symptoms appear suddenly, progress rapidly, and resolve slowly as damaged nerves heal. In chronic forms, symptoms begin subtly and progress slowly. Some people may have periods of relief followed by relapse. Others may reach a plateau stage where symptoms stay the same for many months or years. Many chronic neuropathies worsen over time. Although neuropathy may be painful and potentially debilitating, very few forms are fatal.

In diabetic neuropathy, one of the most common forms of peripheral neuropathy, nerve damage occurs in an ascending pattern. The first nerve fibers to malfunction are the ones that travel the furthest from the brain and the spinal cord. Pain and numbness often are felt symmetrically in both feet followed by a gradual progression up both legs. Later, the fingers, hands, and arms may become affected.

How are the peripheral neuropathies classified?

More than 100 types of peripheral neuropathy have been identified, each with its own symptoms and prognosis. In general, peripheral neuropathies are classified according to the type of damage to the nerves. Some forms of neuropathy involve damage to only one nerve and are called mononeuropathies. More frequently however, multiple nerves are affected, called polyneuropathy.

Some peripheral neuropathies are due to damage to the axons (the long, threadlike portion of the nerve cell), while others are due to damage to the myelin sheath, the fatty protein that coats and insulates the axon. Peripheral neuropathies may also be caused by a combination of both axonal damage and demyelination. Electrodiagnostic studies can help healthcare providers determine the type of damage involved.

What are the symptoms of peripheral nerve damage?

Symptoms vary depending on whether motor, sensory, or autonomic nerves are damaged. Motor nerves control voluntary movement of muscles such as those used for walking, grasping things, or talking. Sensory nerves transmit information such as the feeling of a light touch or the pain from a cut. Autonomic nerves control organ activities that are regulated automatically such as breathing, digesting food, and heart and gland functions. Some neuropathies may affect all three types of nerves; others primarily affect one or two types. Doctors may use terms such as predominantly motor neuropathy, predominantly sensory neuropathy, sensory-motor neuropathy, or autonomic neuropathy to describe the types of nerves involved in an individual’s condition.

Motor nerve damage is most commonly associated with muscle weakness. Other symptoms may include painful cramps and fasciculations (uncontrolled muscle twitching visible under the skin), muscle atrophy (severe shrinkage of muscle size), and decreased reflexes.

Sensory nerve damage causes a variety of symptoms because sensory nerves have a broad range of functions. Larger sensory fibers enclosed in myelin register vibration, light touch, and position sense. Damage to large sensory fibers impairs touch, resulting in a general decrease in sensation. Since this is felt most in the hands and feet, people may feel as if they are wearing gloves and stockings even when they are not. This damage to larger sensory fibers may contribute to the loss of reflexes. Loss of position sense often makes people unable to coordinate complex movements like walking or fastening buttons, or to maintain their balance when their eyes are shut.

Smaller sensory fibers without myelin sheaths transmit pain and temperature sensations. Damage to these fibers can interfere with the ability to feel pain or changes in temperature. People may fail to sense that they have been injured from a cut or that a wound is becoming infected. Others may not detect pain that warns of impending heart attack or other acute conditions. Loss of pain sensation is a particularly serious problem for people with diabetes, contributing to the high rate of lower limb amputations among this population.

Neuropathic pain is a common, often difficult to control symptom of sensory nerve damage and can seriously affect emotional well-being and overall quality of life. Often worse at night, neuropathic pain seriously disrupts sleep and adds to the emotional burden of sensory nerve damage. Neuropathic pain can often be associated with an oversensitization of pain receptors in the skin, so that people feel severe pain (allodynia) from stimuli that are normally painless. For example, some may experience pain from bed sheets draped lightly over the body. Over many years, sensory neuropathy may lead to changes in the skin, hair, as well as to joint and bone damage. Unrecognized injuries due to poor sensation contribute to these changes, so it is important for people with neuropathy to inspect numb areas for injury or damage.

Autonomic nerve damage symptoms are diverse since the parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves of the peripheral nervous system control nearly every organ in the body. Common symptoms of autonomic nerve damage include an inability to sweat normally, which may lead to heat intolerance; a loss of bladder control; and an inability to control muscles that expand or contract blood vessels to regulate blood pressure. A drop in blood pressure when a person moves suddenly from a seated to a standing position (a condition known as postural or orthostatic hypotension) may result in dizziness, lightheadedness, or fainting. Irregular heartbeats may also occur.

Gastrointestinal symptoms may accompany autonomic neuropathy. Malfunction of nerves controlling intestinal muscle contractions can lead to diarrhea, constipation, or incontinence. Many people also have problems eating or swallowing if autonomic nerves controlling these functions are affected.

What causes peripheral neuropathy?

Peripheral neuropathy may be either inherited or acquired through disease processes or trauma. In many cases, however, a specific cause cannot be identified. Doctors usually refer to neuropathies with no known cause as idiopathic.

Causes of acquired peripheral neuropathy include:

Physical injury (trauma) is the most common cause of acquired nerve injury.

• Injury or sudden trauma, such as from automobile accidents, falls, sports-related activities, and surgical procedures can cause nerves to be partially or completely severed, crushed, compressed, or stretched, sometimes so forcefully that they are partially or completely detached from the spinal cord. Less severe traumas also can cause serious nerve damage. Broken or dislocated bones can exert damaging pressure on neighboring nerves.

• Repetitive stress frequently leads to entrapment neuropathies, a form of compression injury. Cumulative damage can result from repetitive, awkward, and/or forceful activities that require movement of any group of joints for prolonged periods. The resulting irritation may cause ligaments, tendons, and muscles to become inflamed and swollen, constricting the narrow passageways through which some nerves pass. Ulnar neuropathy and carpal tunnel syndrome are examples of the most common types of neuropathy from trapped or compressed nerves at the elbow or wrist.

Diseases or disorders and their related processes (such as inflammation) can be associated with peripheral neuropathy.

• Metabolic and endocrine disorders impair the body’s ability to transform nutrients into energy and process waste products, and this can lead to nerve damage. Diabetes mellitus, characterized by chronically high blood glucose levels, is a leading cause of peripheral neuropathy in the United States. About 60 percent to 70 percent of people with diabetes have mild to severe forms of nervous system damage that can affect sensory, motor, and autonomic nerves and present with varied symptoms. Some metabolic liver diseases also lead to neuropathies as a result of chemical imbalances. Endocrine disorders that lead to hormonal imbalances can disturb normal metabolic processes and cause neuropathies. For example, an underproduction of thyroid hormones slows metabolism, leading to fluid retention and swollen tissues that can exert pressure on peripheral nerves. Overproduction of growth hormone can lead to acromegaly, a condition characterized by the abnormal enlargement of many parts of the skeleton, including the joints. Nerves running through these affected joints often become entrapped, causing pain.

• Small vessel disease can decrease oxygen supply to the peripheral nerves and lead to serious nerve tissue damage. Diabetes frequently leads to impaired blood flow to nerves. Various forms of vasculitis (blood vessel inflammation) frequently cause vessel walls to harden, thicken, and develop scar tissue, decreasing their diameter and impeding blood flow. Vasculitis is an example of nerve damage called mononeuritis multiplex or multifocal mononeuropathy, in which isolated nerves in two or more areas are damaged.

• Autoimmune diseases, in which the immune system attacks the body’s own tissues, can lead to nerve damage. Sjogren’s syndrome, lupus, and rheumatoid arthritis are among the autoimmune diseases that can be associated with peripheral neuropathy. When the tissue surrounding nerves becomes inflamed, the inflammation can spread directly into nerve fibers. Over time, these chronic autoimmune conditions can destroy joints, organs, and connective tissues, making nerve fibers more vulnerable to compression injuries and entrapment. Chronic conditions may alternate between remission and relapse. Acute inflammatory demyelinating neuropathy, better known as Guillain- Barré syndrome, can damage motor, sensory, and autonomic nerve fibers. Most people recover from this autoimmune syndrome although severe cases can be life threatening. Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP) usually damages sensory and motor nerves, leaving autonomic nerves intact. Multifocal motor neuropathy is a form of inflammatory neuropathy that affects motor nerves exclusively. It may be chronic or acute.

• Kidney disorders may cause neuropathies. Kidney dysfunction can lead to abnormally high amounts of toxic substances in the blood that can damage nerve tissue. A majority of indviduals who require dialysis because of kidney failure develop polyneuropathy.

• Cancers can infiltrate nerve fibers or exert damaging compression forces on nerve fibers. Tumors also can arise directly from nerve tissue cells. Paraneoplastic syndromes, a group of rare degenerative disorders that are triggered by a person’s immune system response to a cancerous tumor, also can indirectly cause widespread nerve damage. Toxicity from the chemotherapeutic agents and radiation used to treat cancer also can cause peripheral neuropathy. An estimated 30 to 40 percent of people who undergo chemotherapy develop peripheral neuropathy and it is a leading reason why people with cancer stop chemotherapy early. The severity of chemotherapyinduced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN) varies from person to person. In some cases people may be able to ease their symptoms by lowering their chemotherapy dose or by stopping it temporarily. In others, CIPN may persist long after stopping chemotherapy.

• Neuromas are benign tumors that are caused by an overgrowth of nerve tissue that develops after a penetrating injury that severs nerve fibers. Neuromas are often associated with intense pain and sometimes they engulf neighboring nerves, leading to further damage and even greater pain. Neuroma formation can be one element of a more widespread neuropathic pain condition called complex regional pain syndrome or reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome, which can be caused by traumatic injuries or surgical trauma. Widespread polyneuropathy is often associated with neurofibromatosis, a genetic disorder in which multiple benign tumors grow on nerve tissue.

• Infections can cause peripheral neuropathy. Viruses and bacteria that can attack nerve tissues include herpes varicellazoster (shingles), Epstein-Barr virus, West Nile virus, cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex members of the large family of human herpes viruses. These viruses can severely damage sensory nerves, causing attacks of sharp, lightning-like pain. Postherpetic neuralgia is long-lasting, particularly intense pain that often occurs after an attack of shingles. Lyme disease, diphtheria, and leprosy are bacterial diseases characterized by extensive peripheral nerve damage. Diphtheria and leprosy are rare in the United States, but the incidence of Lyme disease is on the rise. 

 
The tick-borne infection can involve a wide range of neuropathic disorders, including a rapidly developing, painful polyneuropathy, often within a few weeks of being infected. West Nile virus is spread by mosquitoes and is associated with a severe motor neuropathy. The inflammation triggered by infection sometimes results in various forms of inflammatory neuropathies that develop quickly or slowly.

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) that causes AIDS is associated with several different forms of neuropathy, depending on the nerves affected and the specific stage of active immunodeficiency disease. A rapidly progressive, painful polyneuropathy affecting the feet and hands can be the first clinically apparent symptom of HIV infection. An estimated 30 percent of people who are HIV positive develop peripheral neuropathy; 20 percent develop distal neuropathic pain.

Exposure to toxins may damage nerves and cause peripheral neuropathy.

• Medication toxicity can be caused by many agents in addition to those for fighting cancer. Other agents that commonly cause peripheral neuropathy as a side effect include those used to fight infection such as antiretroviral agents for treating HIV. In addition, anticonvulsant agents and some heart and blood pressure medications can commonly cause peripheral neuropathy. In most cases, the neuropathy resolves when these medications are discontinued or dosages are adjusted.

• Environmental or industrial toxins such as lead, mercury, and arsenic can cause peripheral neuropathy. In addition, certain insecticides and solvents have also been known to cause neuropathies.
• Heavy alcohol consumption is a common cause of peripheral neuropathy. Damage to the nerves associated with long-term alcohol abuse may not be reversible when a person stops drinking alcohol, however, doing so may provide some symptom relief and prevent further damage. Chronic alcohol abuse also frequently leads to nutritional deficiencies (including B12, thiamine, and folate) that contribute to the development of peripheral neuropathy.

Genetic mutations can either be inherited or arise de novo, meaning they are completely new mutations to an individual and are not passed along by either parent. Some genetic mutations lead to mild neuropathies with symptoms that begin in early adulthood and result in little, if any, significant impairment. More severe hereditary neuropathies often appear in infancy or childhood.

Advances in genetic testing in the last decade have led to significant strides in the ability to identify the genetic causes underlying peripheral neuropathies. For example, several genes have been found to play a role in different types of Charcot-Marie-Tooth, a group of disorders that are among the most common forms of inherited peripheral neuropathies. These neuropathies result from mutations in genes responsible for maintaining the health of the myelin sheath as well as the axons themselves. Key characteristics of Charcot- Marie-Tooth disorders include extreme weakening and wasting of muscles in the lower legs and feet, gait abnormalities, loss of tendon reflexes, and numbness in the lower limbs.

How is peripheral neuropathy diagnosed?

The symptoms of peripheral neuropathy are highly variable. A thorough neurological examination is required to sort out the cause of the symptoms and involves taking an extensive medical history (covering symptoms, work environment, social habits, exposure to toxins, alcohol use, risk of HIV or other infectious diseases, and family history of neurological diseases). In addition, tests are usually performed to identify the cause of the neuropathy as well as the extent and type of nerve damage.

A physical examination and various tests may reveal the presence of a systemic disease causing the nerve damage. Tests of muscle strength, as well as evidence of cramps or fasciculations, indicate motor fiber involvement. Evaluation of the person’s ability to sense vibration, light touch, body position, temperature, and pain reveals any sensory nerve damage and may indicate whether small or large sensory nerve fibers are affected.

Blood tests can detect diabetes, vitamin deficiencies, liver or kidney dysfunction, other metabolic disorders, and signs of abnormal immune system activity. An examination of cerebrospinal fluid that surrounds the brain and spinal cord can reveal abnormal antibodies associated with some immune-mediated neuropathies. More specialized tests may reveal other blood or cardiovascular diseases, connective tissue disorders, or malignancies. Genetic tests are becoming available for a number of the inherited neuropathies.

Based on the results of the neurological exam, physical exam, patient history, and any previous screening or testing, the following additional tests may be ordered to help determine the nature and extent of the neuropathy:

• Nerve conduction velocity (NCV) tests can measure the degree of damage in large nerve fibers, revealing whether symptoms are caused by degeneration of the myelin sheath or the axon. The myelin covering is responsible for the very fast speed of nerve conduction. During this test, a probe electrically stimulates a nerve fiber, which responds by generating its own electrical impulse. An electrode placed further along the nerve’s pathway measures the speed of impulse transmission along the axon. Slow transmission rates and impulse blockage tend to indicate damage to the myelin sheath, while a reduction in the strength of impulses at normal speeds is a sign of axonal degeneration.
• Electromyography (EMG) involves inserting a fine needle into a muscle to record electrical activity when muscles are at rest and when they contract. EMG tests detect abnormal electrical activity in motor neuropathy and can help differentiate between muscle and nerve disorders.

• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can show muscle quality and size, detect fatty replacement of muscle tissue, and can help rule out tumors, herniated discs, or other abnormalities that may be causing the neuropathy.

• Nerve biopsy involves removing and examining a sample of nerve tissue, most often from the lower leg. Although this test can provide valuable information about the degree of nerve damage, it is an invasive procedure that is difficult to perform and may itself cause neuropathic side effects.

• Skin biopsy is a test in which doctors remove a thin skin sample and examine nerve fiber endings. This test offers some unique advantages over NCV tests and nerve biopsy. Unlike NCV, it can reveal damage present in smaller fibers; in contrast to conventional nerve biopsy, skin biopsy is less invasive, has fewer side effects, and is easier to perform.

What treatments are available?

Address underlying conditions

The first step in treating peripheral neuropathy is to address any contributing causes such as infection, toxin exposure, medication-related toxicity, vitamin deficiencies, hormonal deficiencies, autoimmune disorders, or compression that can lead to neuropathy. Peripheral nerves have the ability to regenerate axons, as long as the nerve cell itself has not died, which may lead to functional recovery over time. Correcting an underlying condition often can result in the neuropathy resolving on its own as the nerves recover or regenerate.

The adoption of healthy lifestyle habits such as maintaining optimal weight, avoiding exposure to toxins, exercising, eating a balanced diet, correcting vitamin deficiencies, and limiting or avoiding alcohol consumption can reduce the effects of peripheral neuropathy. Exercise can reduce cramps, improve muscle strength, and prevent muscle wasting. Various dietary strategies can improve gastrointestinal symptoms. Timely treatment of injuries can help prevent permanent damage. Smoking cessation is particularly important because smoking constricts the blood vessels that supply nutrients to the peripheral nerves and can worsen neuropathic symptoms. Self-care skills such as meticulous foot care and careful wound treatment in people with diabetes and others who have an impaired ability to feel pain can alleviate symptoms and improve quality of life. Such changes often create conditions that encourage nerve regeneration.

Systemic diseases frequently require more complex treatments. Strict control of blood glucose levels has been shown to reduce neuropathic symptoms and help people with diabetic neuropathy avoid further nerve damage.

Inflammatory and autoimmune conditions leading to neuropathy can be controlled in several ways. Immunosuppressive drugs such as prednisone, cyclosporine, or azathioprine may be beneficial. Plasmapheresis — a procedure in which blood is removed, cleansed of immune system cells and antibodies, and then returned to the body — can help reduce inflammation or suppress immune system activity. Large intravenously administered doses of immunoglobulins (antibodies that alter the immune system, and agents such as rituximab that target specific inflammatory cells) also can suppress abnormal immune system activity.

Symptom Management

Neuropathic pain, or pain caused by the injury to a nerve or nerves, is often difficult to control. Mild pain may sometimes be alleviated by over-the-counter analgesics such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). More chronic and discomforting pain may need to be addressed through the care of a physician. Medications that are used for chronic neuropathic pain fall under several classes of drugs: antidepressants, anticonvulsant medications, antiarrythmic medications, and narcotic agents. The antidepressant and anticonvulsant medications modulate pain through their mechanism of action on the peripheral nerves, spinal cord, or brain and tend to be the most effective types of medications to control neuropathic pain. Antidepressant medications include tricyclic antidepressants such as amitriptyline or newer serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors such as duloxetine hydrochloride or venlafaxine. Anticonvulsant medications that are frequently used include gabapentin, pregabalin, topiramate, and carbamazepine, although other medications used for treating epilepsy may also be useful. Mexiletine is an anti-arrythmic medication that may be used for treatment of chronic painful neuropathies.

For pain that does not respond to the previously described medications, the addition of narcotic agents may be considered. Because the use of prescription obtained pain relievers that contain opioids can lead to dependence and addiction, their use is recommended only after other means of controlling the pain have failed. One of the newest narcotic medications approved for the treatment of diabetic neuropathy is tapentadol, a drug with both opioid activity and norepinephrine-reuptake inhibition activity of an antidepressant.

Topically administered medications are another option for neuropathic pain. Two agents are topical lidocaine, an anesthetic agent, and capsaicin, a substance found in hot peppers that modifies peripheral pain receptors. Topical agents are generally most appropriate for localized chronic pain such as herpes zoster neuralgia (shingles) pain. Their usefulness for treating diffuse chronic diabetic neuropathy is more limited.

Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) is a non-invasive intervention used for pain relief in a range of conditions, and a number of studies have described its use for neuropathic pain. The therapy involves attaching electrodes to the skin at the site of pain or near associated nerves and then administering a gentle electrical current. Although data from controlled clinical trials are not available to broadly establish its efficacy for peripheral neuropathies, TENS has been shown in some studies to improve peripheral neuropathy symptoms associated with diabetes.

Other complementary approaches may provide additional support and pain relief. For example, mechanical aids such as hand or foot braces can help reduce pain and physical disability by compensating for muscle weakness or alleviating nerve compression. Orthopedic shoes can improve gait disturbances and help prevent foot injuries in people with a loss of pain sensation. Acupuncture, massage, and herbal medications also are considered in the treatment of neuropathic pain.

Surgical intervention can be considered for some types of neuropathies. Injuries to a single nerve caused by focal compression such as at the carpal tunnel of the wrist, or other entrapment neuropathies, may respond well to surgery that releases the nerve from the tissues compressing it. Some surgical procedures reduce pain by destroying the nerve; this approach is appropriate only for pain caused by a single nerve and when other forms of treatment have failed to provide relief. Peripheral neuropathies that involve more diffuse nerve damage, such as diabetic neuropathy, are not amenable to surgical intervention.

What research is being done?

The mission of the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) is to seek fundamental knowledge about the brain and nervous system and to use that knowledge to reduce the burden of neurological disease. The NINDS is a component of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the leading supporter of biomedical research in the world.

NINDS-funded research on neuropathy ranges from clinical studies of the genetics and natural history of hereditary neuropathies to basic science investigations of the biological mechanisms responsible for chronic neuropathic pain. Other efforts are focused on understanding how immune system dysfunction contributes to peripheral nerve damage. Together, these diverse research areas will advance the development of new therapeutic and preventive strategies for peripheral neuropathies.

Specific genetic mutations have been identified for some of the known hereditary neuropathies. NINDS therefore supports studies to identify other genetic defects that may play roles in causing or modifying the course of disease. The Inherited Neuropathies Consortium, focused on Charcot-Marie-Tooth neuropathies, seeks to better characterize the natural history of several different forms and to identify genes that modify clinical features in these disorders. Better knowledge of genetic causes may help identify people who are at high risk for developing peripheral neuropathy before symptoms appear. Understanding the role of genetic mutations may also lead to the development of gene therapies that prevent or reduce cumulative nerve damage. In addition, advances from genetics research inform studies to understand disease mechanisms. For example, scientists are using animal models to study how inflammation and nerve damage result from mutations in the Autoimmune Regulator (AIRE) gene, the cause of chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP) in some people.

Several NINDS-funded studies aim to determine why nerve axons degenerate in different types of peripheral neuropathies. Rapid communication between the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system depends on myelination, a process through which special cells called Schwann cells create an insulating sheath around axons. Research has shown that Schwann cells play a critical role in the regeneration of nerve cell axons in the peripheral nervous system. By better understanding myelination and Schwann cell function, researchers hope to find targets for new therapies to treat or prevent nerve damage associated with neuropathy.
One promising area of research focuses on a class of molecules called neurotrophic factors. These substances, produced naturally by the body, protect neurons from injury and enhance their survival. Neurotrophic factors also help maintain normal function in mature nerve cells, and some stimulate axon regeneration. Several NINDS-supported studies seek to learn more about the effects of these powerful chemicals on the peripheral nervous system.

Another area of research aims to better understand inflammatory peripheral neuropathies, such as Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS), in which the body’s immune system attacks peripheral nerves, damaging myelin and impairing signal conduction along affected nerves. NINDS-funded researchers are investigating the mechanisms by which the body’s immune system stops recognizing peripheral nerves as “self” and starts attacking them. GBS is usually preceded by a microbial infection, some as common as food poisoning or the flu, and researchers hypothesize that antibodies generated by the immune system to fight bacteria also attack nervous system proteins. Studies to test this hypothesis may lead to treatments that prevent these antibodies from damaging nerves. As a different strategy, researchers are studying the blood-nerve barrier in inflammatory nervous system disorders and developing ways to reduce the movement of immune cells from the bloodstream into nerve tissue, which may reduce inflammation, demyelination and nerve injury.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), which uses a coil either held above or placed on the scalp that delivers electromagnetic pulses to activate electrical currents in general or specific parts of the brain, has shown some analgesic effect in treating various pain conditions. Current studies are examining the effectiveness of TMS in treating peripheral and chronic neuropathies.

In addition to efforts to treat or prevent underlying nerve damage, other NINDSsupported studies are informing new strategies for relieving neuropathic pain. Researchers are investigating the pathways that carry pain signals to the brain and are working to identify substances that will block this signaling.
 

"Bad Cholesterol": A Myth and a Fraud

We in the medical profession, totally oblivious of the vital roles of cholesterol in the body, have been duped into thinking that it is this substance that causes arterial disease of the heart and the brain. The pharmaceutical industry has capitalized on the slogan of "bad cholesterol" and has produced toxic-to-the-body chemicals that minimally lower the level of cholesterol in the body and in the process cause liver damage to thousands of people, some who die as a result of using the medication.

It is surprising that none of the frequently quoted and media-popularized doctors has reflected on the fact that cholesterol levels are measured from blood taken from the veins, yet nowhere in medical literature is there a single case of cholesterol having caused obstruction of the veins. Venous blood moves far slower than arterial blood and thus would be more inclined to have cholesterol deposits if the assumption of "bad cholesterol" were accurate. This mistake by us in the medical community, and its capitalization by the pharmaceutical industry, has caused an ongoing fraud against society.

In truth, the so-called "bad" cholesterol is actually far more beneficial than is appreciated. The reason for its rise in the body is because of complications caused by chronic unintentional dehydration and insufficient urine production. Dehydration produces concentrated, acidic blood that becomes even more dehydrated during its passage through the lungs before reaching the heart - because of evaporation of water in the lungs during breathing. The membranes of the blood vessels of the heart and main arteries going up to the brain become vulnerable to the shearing pressure produced by the thicker, acidic blood. This shearing force of toxic blood causes abrasions and minute tears in the lining of the arteries that can peel off and cause embolisms of the brain, kidneys and other organs. To prevent the damaged blood vessel walls from peeling, low-density (so-called "bad") cholesterol coats and covers up the abrasions and protects the underlying tissue like a waterproof bandage until the tissue heals.

Thus, the vital, life-saving role of low-density cholesterol proves this substance is of utmost importance in saving the lives of those who do not adequately hydrate their bodies so that their blood can flow easily through the blood vessels without causing damage.

Cholesterol is an element from which many of our hormones are made. Vitamin D is made by the body from cholesterol in our skin that is exposed to sunlight. Cholesterol is used in the insulating membranes that cover our nerve systems. There is no such a thing as bad cholesterol. If all the primary ingredients are available for its normal functions, the human body does not engage in making things that are bad for its survival. Until now we did not know water was a vital nutrient that the body needed at all times - and in sufficient quantity.

Water itself - not caffeinated beverages that further dehydrate - is a better cholesterol-lowering medication than any chemical on the market. It is absolutely safe and is not harmful to the body like the dangerous medications now used. Please share this information with those you care for.

For more information about my medical breakthrough on the topic of chronic unintentional dehydration and the diseases it causes, other than what is posted on this site, refer to my books and tapes - products of over 20 years of fulltime research.

F. Batmanghelidj, M.D.

Iron in the Blood

Males of average height have about 4 grams of iron in their body, females about 3.5 grams; children will usually have 3 grams or less. These 3-4 grams are distributed throughout the body in hemoglobin, tissues, muscles, bone marrow, blood proteins, enzymes, ferritin, hemosiderin, and transport in plasma.

What should be the iron level?

According to the Mayo Clinic, normal hematocrit levels, or the volume of red blood cells to the total volume of blood, should range between 34.9 and 44.5 percent in women; in men, healthy levels are from 38.8 to 50 percent. Low iron levels usually indicate anemia.

What causes iron overload in the blood?

Blood loss means iron loss. Iron overload disorder can be either: Passed on genetically; this is known as primary hemochromatosis, hereditary hemochromatosis, or classic hemochromatosis. The result of some condition, such as chronic liver disease, that causes the body to absorb excessive amounts of iron
What causes high iron levels?

High blood iron is usually the result of hemochromatosis, a disease in which the body absorbs too much iron from the diet. Secondary hemochromatosis is a complication arising from certain diseases, and can also result when multiple blood transfusions are used in treating certain diseases.

What is it called when you have too much iron in your blood?

Hemochromatosis is a condition that causes the body to absorb and store too much iron. Some iron is essential for carrying oxygen in the blood to organs and tissues, but too much is toxic. Hemochromatosis is a common cause of iron overload.


THE IRON CONTENT OF THE WHOLE BLOOD OF
NORMAL INDIVIDUALS
BY 0. M. HELMER AND CHARLES P. EMERSON, JR.
(From the Lilly Laboratory for Clinical Research, Indianapolis City
Hospital, Indianapolis)
(Received for publication, November 15, 1933)

During the course of an investigation involving the determination
of blood iron values in normal subjects, it became evident
that the results were consistently higher than the figures recently
reported for human blood by Murphy, Lynch, and Howard (1)
and Reich and Tiedemann (2). Furthermore, hemoglobin values
calculated on the basis of their iron determinations differed considerably
from values obtained by them, with the Sahli and Newcomer
methods. Oxygen capacity figures calculated from their
iron determinations were also lower than those generally considered
normal in the literature. Since the oxygen capacity
method is the standard method of determining the hemoglobin
content of blood, simultaneous determinations of oxygen capacity
by the Van Slyke and Neil1 method (3) and iron determinations
by the Kennedy method (4) were made on the blood of a series of
normal men and women. Since the completion of this work,
Sachs, Levine, and Appelsis (5), using the Wong method (6), have
reported iron values for the blood of normal men that are in accord
with the data recorded in this paper, although their figures for
normal women are definitely lower.

In order to determine whether the discrepancies in the iron
values quoted in the papers above might be explained by the
methods used for estimating t,he iron content, a comparison was
also made between the Kennedy and the Wong methods.

Methods

The subjects used for these experiments-doctors, nurses, students,

and technicians-were all apparently normal individuals between the ages of 20 and 40 years. Samples were obtained for
analysis by withdrawing approximately 10 cc. of venous blood
from the large arm vein of each individual and transferring the
blood to a bottle containing iron-free sodium oxalate. All collections
were made between the hours of 8.30 a.m. and 10 a.m.
during the months of July and August.
TABLE I
Results of Analyses for Iron Content and Oxygen Capacity on Blood of Ten Normal Men and Ten Normal Women with Oxygen Capacity Also Calculated from Total Iron Content and Protein Iron Content

The oxygen capacity was then determined by the method of
Van Slyke and Neil1 (3). Iron was determined by the Kennedy
method (4). The blood was digested without difficulty in 25
X 200 mm. Pyrex glass test-tubes instead of the Kjeldahl flasks
recommended by Kennedy.

In comparing the Kennedy and Wong methods, the same pipette
was used to measure both blood samples, 1 cc. samples being used
for both methods. We found better results could be obtained in
the Wong method when 4 cc. of distilled water were added to the
blood before the concentrated sulfuric acid was added. 

The red blood cell counts were made on the samples obtained
from the arm vein. Standard pipettes and counting chambers
were used.

Results

The results of the analyses are shown in Table I. The iron
values are converted into oxygen capacity figures by multiplying

TABLE II

Results of Determination of Iron in Whole Blood of Normal Individuals by

Kennedy and Wong Methods

the mg. per cent of iron by 0.400. (Since 1 mole of oxygen occupies
22,400 cc. at 0”, 760 mm., the molal ratio Fe:O, = 1: 1
corresponds to a ratio of gm. of Fe to cc. of O2 = 56:22,400 =
1:400, or mg. of Fe to cc. of O2 = 1:O .400.) McIntosh (7) has
shown that normal blood contains 1.02 mg. .of non-protein iron
per 100 cc. Therefore we have also converted the iron values to
oxygen capacity after subtracting this figure from the total iron

values. 

In Table II are shown the mg. of iron in 100 cc. of the same blood
analyzed by the Kennedy and Wong methods.

DISCUSSION

The data presented in this paper show that there is a close agreement
between the hemoglobin cont’ent of normal human blood as
determined by the oxygen capacity method and the Kennedy iron
method. Therefore, the determination of iron offers an easy
means of estimating the hemoglobin content of blood or of standardizing
calorimetric methods of estimating hemoglobin. If we
add the figures of eight of the cases from Table II, which were not
included in Table I, the average iron content of the blood of eighteen
normal men, determined by the Kennedy method, varied from
49.3 to 57.2 mg. per 100 cc., with an average of 52.5 mg. per 100 cc.
of blood. For the ten normal women the iron content varied from
42.0 to 49.8 mg. per 100 cc. of blood, with an average of 45.8 mg.

In Table III the results of the recent iron determinations in
human blood and the oxygen capacity and hemoglobin figures
calculated from the iron content are compared to the hemoglobin
figures recorded in the literature for normal men and women.
The data of Reich and Tiedemann are not included in Table III
because their normals can hardly be called that in the strict sense
of the word. The iron values reported in this paper agree with
the values of hemoglobin reported on larger series of cases by
Haden (8), Osgood (9), and Wintrobe and Miller (10). The results
of Murphy and coworkers are definitely lower than would be
expected for blood with normal hemoglobin content.

As shown in Table II, the Kennedy method gave distinctly
higher results than the Wong method. Although the simplicity
of the Wong method recommends its use, in our experience the
Kennedy method proved to be more satisfactory.

SUMMARY

1. There is a close agreement between t.he hemoglobin content
of blood as determined by its iron content and oxygen capacity.
2. The blood iron content of eighteen normal men, determined
by the Kennedy method, varied from 49.3 to 57.2 mg. per 100 cc.,

with an average of 52.5 mg. 

TABLE III

Results of Recent Iron Determinations in Ilunlan Blood, and Oxygen Capacity
and Hemoglobin Values, Calculated from Iron Content, and Normal
Values oj Hemoglobin and Oxygen Capacity As Recorded in
Recent Literature

3. The blood iron content of ten normal women varied from 12.0

to 49.8 mg. per 100 cc., with an average of 45.8 mg.

4. Higher iron values were obtained with the Kennedy method

than with the Wong method.

The authors wish to thank -Miss Dorothy Schaefer, Miss Betty

Goss, and l&L-. Clyde Ford for their assistance. 

http://www.jbc.org/content/104/1/157.citation

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Infuse your Tissues with Stem Cell Nutrition and Feel Your Best Every Day!

Product Fact Sheet

Infuse your Tissues with Stem Cell Nutrition and Feel Your Best Every Day!
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ST-5 with MigraStem contains 5 specialized blends 
including the exclusive MigraStem. Loaded with 
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ST-5 with MigraStem also provides 20 vitamins 
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MigraStem Power.

ST-5 with MigraStem is the only nutritional 
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Once in the tissue, your stem cells reproduce and 
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Key Benefits
 Optimizes the Migration of your body’s own stem 
cells†
 Supports weight management†
 High in dietary fiber - 10g
 Supports healthy digestion with prebiotics and 
digestive enzymes†
 Supports sustained energy†
 Excellent source of protein - 15g

 Rich source of your daily vitamins and minerals
Less Than 1 Gram of Sugar
Unique Protein Blend
67% More Fiber
33% More Digestive Enzymes
Low Fat (1 Gram)

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FAB 5 BLENDS {BENEFITS}

1. MigraStem™ Whole Food Antioxidant
{Patent-pending MigraStem maximizes the use of 
your body’s own stem cells.†
 It contains potent whole food antioxidants, 
including goji fruit extract, organic fucoidan, 
organic GanoUltra™ mushrooms, maca, and 
fractionated colostrum— touting a host of health 
benefits widely known by Chinese herbalists.}

2. Triple Source Plant-Based Protein
{Triple source plant-based protein is 100% 
vegetarian and made with a combination of raw 
sprouted brown rice, pea and potato. It provides 
15 grams and 35% of the daily value, making it 
an excellent source of protein. Plus, it delivers a 
complete amino acid profile, helps with appetite 
suppression, and is easy to digest.† Gluten free 
and Non GMO.}

3. High Potency Vitamins and Minerals {Contains 
20 essential vitamins and minerals, providing 100% 
Daily Value of 16 key nutrients. Great liquid
alternative to taking a multivitamin in pill form.}

4. Fiber and Prebiotics
(Provides an excellent source of dietary fiber 
(10g), with 6.1 grams of soluble fiber. ST-5 
with MigraStem’s fiber and prebiotic blend 
supports a feeling of fullness, intestinal 
health, and immune health. †
 Contains Fibregum™ acacia gum, a proven 
prebiotic to help good bacteria thrive in the 
digestive tract.†}

5. Digestive Enzymes {A full spectrum of active, 
plant-sourced enzymes to help break down fats, 
carbohydrates and protein, aiding nutrient absorption.}


It’s not only what ST-5 with MigraStem contains, it’s also about what it doesn’t contain: No fillers, artificial flavors, gluten, soy, and genetically modified organisms.

INGREDIENTS / LABEL

ST-5™ with MigraStem™ feeds every cell with premium nutrition so your body can
run at its best. With 5 specialized blends comprised of stem cell nutrition and essential
nutrients, ST-5 with MigraStem helps optimize the migration of your body's own stem
cells into tissues in need of repair while supporting whole body wellness.† ST-5 with
MigraStem is packed with three sources of high quality plant-based protein, high fiber,
20 key vitamins and minerals, powerful antioxidants, exotic superfoods, prebiotics and
digestive enzymes — all in one delicious and nutritious scoop.
ST-5™ con MigraStem™ alimenta cada célula con nutrientes de alta calidad para que
su cuerpo pueda funcionar a su máximo potencial. Con 5 mezclas especializadas que
brindan nutrición para las células madre y nutrientes esenciales, ST-5 con MigraStem
ayuda a optimizar la migración de sus propias células madres a los tejidos en
necesidad de reparación y al mismo tiempo, apoya la salud y bienestar general.†
ST-5 con MigraStem está repleto de: 3 fuentes de proteína vegetal de alta calidad,
excelente contenido de fibra, 20 vitaminas y minerales esenciales, antioxidantes
poderosos, súperalimentos exóticos, prebióticos y enzimas digestivas — todo en una
deliciosa y nutritiva porción. Gluten Free / Soy Free / Non GMO
Sin Gluten / Libre de Soya / No OGM
REV1-JUL15 Item Code: 1954
Product of USA
Producto de EE.UU
WARNING: As with all dietary supplements, it is recommended that you consult your physician if you are pregnant or
nursing. Keep out of reach of children and pets. Do not use if safety seal is broken. Use as a dietary supplement only.
Not for weight reduction.
ADVERTENCIA: Como cualquier suplemento dietario se recomienda que consulte a su médico si está embarazada o

lactando. Mantener fuera del alcance de niños y mascotas. No lo utilice si el sello esta rasgado. Solo para ser utilizado como 

Supercharge Your Smoothie†
Potencie Su Batido†
DIETARY SUPPLEMENT / Net Wt 24.7 oz (700 g)
SUPLEMENTO DIETARIO / Peso Neto 24.7 oz (700 g)
Suggested Usage: 1 time daily.
Add 1 scoop to your smoothie, 8 oz of cold water or another healthy beverage. Mix well and enjoy. Best when consumed within 15 minutes of mixing.
Modo de Empleo: 1 vez al dia.
Añadir 1 cuchara medidora a su batido, 8 onzas de agua fría u otra bebida saludable. Mezclar bien y disfrutar. Se recomienda consumirlo en los
primeros 15 minutos de haberlo preparado.
Distributed by / Distribuido por:
Stemtech HealthSciences Corp.
Pembroke Pines, FL 33028
www.stemtech.com
1-888-Stemtech (783-6832)
Patents Pending / Patentes en Trámite
FIBERSOL® is a registered trademark of Matsutani Chemical Industry Co., Ltd.
FIBERSOL® es una marca registrada de Matsutani Chemical Industry Co., Ltd.
Fibregum™ is a trademark of Nexira
Fibregum™ es una marca registrada de Nexira
NutraFlora® is a registered trademark of GTC Nutrition Company
NutraFlora® es una marca registrada de GTC Nutrition Company
Ticaxin® is a registered trademark of Tic Gums, Inc.
Ticaxin® es una marca registrada de Tic Gums, Inc.
Store in a cool dry place. Conservar en lugar seco y fresco.
†These statements have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. This product is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease. †Estas declaraciones no han sido evaluadas por la Agencia de Alimentos y Medicamentos de Estados Unidos. Este producto no pretende diagnosticar, tratar, curar ni prevenir enfermedad alguna.
Other ingredients: Isomaltulose palatinose, natural vanilla flavor powder, Monk fruit extract (Siraitia grosvenorii), honey (granules). CONTAINS MILK (Fractionated Colostrum).
Otros ingredientes: Isomaltulosa palatinosa, sabor natural de vainilla, extracto de Luo han guo (Siraitia grosvenorii), miel (gránulos). CONTIENE LECHE (Calostro Fraccionado).
Supplement Facts / Datos del Suplemento
Serving Size / Tamaño de Porción 1 Scoop / 1 Cuchara Medidora (46.7g)
Servings Per Container / Porciones por Envase 15
Per Serving % Daily Value*
Calories 165 8%
 Calories from Fat 10 3%
Total Fat 1 g 1%
 Saturated Fat 0 g
 Trans Fat 0 g
Total Carbohydrates 24 g 8%
 Dietary Fiber 10 g 25%
 Soluble Fiber 6.1 g ‡
 Sugar < 1 g ‡
Protein 15 g 35%
Sodium 172.5 mg 7%
Vitamin A (Beta Carotene) 5000 IU 100%
Vitamin C (Acerola Cherry Fruit Extract) 60 mg 100%
Vitamin D3 (Cholecalciferol) 1000 IU 250%
Vitamin E (d-alpha Tocopheryl Acetate, Mixed Tocopherols) 22 IU 73%
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine Mononitrate) 1.5 mg 100%
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) 1.7 mg 100%
Niacin (Niacinamide) 20 mg 100%
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine HCI) 2 mg 122%
Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin) 50 mcg 833%
Biotin 300 mcg 100%
Pantothenic Acid (Calcium D-Pantothenate) 10 mg 100%
Calcium (Dicalcium Phosphate) 1000 mg 100%
Phosphorus (Dicalcium Phosphate) 759 mg 76%
Iodine (Potassium Iodide) 150 mcg 100%
Magnesium (Magnesium Oxide, Magnesium Phosphate) 350 mg 87%
Zinc (Zinc Oxide) 15 mg 100%
Selenium (Selenium Yeast) 100 mcg 143%
Copper (Copper Gluconate) 0.5 mg 25%
Manganese (Manganese Sulfate) 2 mg 100%
Chromium (Chromium(III) Chloride) 120 mcg 100%
 Per Serving % Daily Value*
Triple Source Plant-Based Protein Blend 18.2 g ‡
 Pea Protein Isolate ‡
 Potato Protein Isolate ‡
 Brown Rice Sprouted Protein Isolate ‡
Fiber & Prebiotic Blend 10.4 g ‡
Soluble Dietary Fiber / Fibersol® 2 ‡
Acacia Gum / Fibregum™ ‡
Organic Xanthan Gum / Ticaxan® ‡
Fructooligosaccharides / NutraFlora™ ‡
MigraStem™ Whole Food Antioxidant Blend 950 mg ‡
Goji Juice Extract Powder (Lycium barbarum) ‡
GanoUltra™ Mushrooms (Ganoderma lucidum; Ganoderma applanatum) ‡
Fractionated Colostrum ‡
Fucoidan (Fucus vesiculosus) ‡
Maca PE (Lepidium meyenii) ‡
Digestive Enzyme Blend 250 mg ‡
 Bromelain ‡
 Protease ‡
 Cellulase ‡
 Hemicellulase ‡
 Invertase ‡
* Percent Daily Values are based on a 2,000 calorie diet. ‡ Daily Value not established.
Optimizes Stem Cell Migration and
Supports Whole Body Wellness†
Optimiza la Migración de Células Madre y Apoya
El Bienestar de Todo el Cuerpo †

Creamy Vanilla
Gluten Free / Soy Free / Non GMO

Sin Gluten / Libre de Soya / No OGM

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS (FAQS) FOR YOUR INFORMATION
Can I use ST-5™ with MigraStem™ with SE3™, StemFlo® and StemSport®?
Yes. To obtain the maximum benefit, we suggest that StemFlo be taken one hour before
or one to two hours after you take ST-5 with MigraStem due to the protein in the mix.
However, as ST-5 with MigraStem is a liquid, it does pass through the stomach into the
intestine quickly, having little effect on the enzyme function in StemFlo.
How do I use ST-5 with MigraStem?
Mix it in any fluid of your choice. Blend with ice or frozen fruit. 

Can I make ST-5 with MigraStem into a hot drink?
You can make a warm beverage. The point is to not mix your ST-5 with MigraStem into
boiling liquid. Boiling liquid will destroy some of the nutrients. Simply heat your fluid and

mix in ST-5 with MigraStem. If the fluid does boil, let it cool before mixing in the product.

POTENTIAL USERS
• Everyone! No matter your age or activity level, you can benefit from ST-5 with
MigraStem.
• For people who want a high potency vitamin-mineral in one formulation without having
to buy multiple bottles.
• For anybody looking to even further optimize their daily renewal system.†
• For all who want to supplement their protein source with a high quality, low fat and NO
cholesterol plant-based protein.
• For all those desiring to assist in maintaining healthy body fat, muscle mass, and
strength.†
• For athletes who will want to make it a part of their daily supplement regime as it

provides complete high-quality absorbable protein and valuable essential nutrients

FOR YOUR INFORMATION

• Gluten free with no artificial coloring, artificial flavors, artificial
sweeteners, yeast or preservatives.
• ST-5 with MigraStem contains high quality non soy all vegetable/plantbased
protein blend that provides all nine of the essential amino acids;
the supplement is highly digestible and absorbable.
• Store in a cool dry location.
• If pregnant or nursing, consult with your healthcare practitioner.
• If one desires to consume the product in a weight loss program, then
use the product responsibly. It is not recommended that one consume
less that 1200 calories a day unless supervised by a healthcare
practitioner. It is advisable to consult a healthcare practitioner prior to
embarking on any weight loss regime.
• Protein has a tendency to satiate appetite, meaning making one
satisfied longer. For those interested in weight management, it
is recommended to eat a protein source first thing in a meal and
carbohydrates to follow. So push away the chips and bread, and reach
for a protein source first, such as ST-5 with MigraStem.
• For athletes: as protein is vital for muscle cell repair, it can be most
beneficial to drink ST-5 with MigraStem after exercise. For further
information on using ST-5 with MigraStem and the other Stemtech

products to support an active lifestyle,

KEY SCIENTIFIC FINDINGS

1. Fucoidan ingestion increases the expression of CXCR4 on
human CD34+ cells. Irhimeh MR, Fitton JH, Lowenthal RM. Exp
Hematol. 2007 Jun;35(6):989–94.
2. “A New Breakthrough in Stem Cell Nutrition ST-5™ with
MigraStem™”

by Christian Drapeau, July 2010

The Aging Process - 3

Immunological Effects of Aging
  
The immune system is nothing short of a massive army at the ready, defending the body 24 hours a day. A sophisticated network of cells and organs stationed around the body protects you from invaders such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.

This network produces and houses the materials to fend off any threat to good health, including the cell production gone haywire that can evolve into a cancerous tumor. What the immune system can't repel, it seeks out and destroys.

If the immune system is an army, white blood cells are the enlisted men. White blood cells and the antibodies they produce are the workhorses of the immune system. They make their rounds via your bloodstream. When invaders enter the body, or when mutant cells are formed, your body mounts its defense by generating a specific antibody.

Antibodies are produced by white cells residing in your spleen and in your lymph nodes. An antibody can finish off germs or bad cells, or it can earmark them for destruction by a type of white cells called macrophages, which are responsible for engulfing and destroying unwanted cells.

Aging decreases immunity by impairing the body's production of antibodies. Fewer antibodies means a more sluggish immune system that's less responsive to foreign elements and to potential cancer cells.

There's a little-talked-about organ that scientists say may be the key to preserving immune function. It's the thymus gland, and unfortunately, it takes a hit with advancing age. When you're born, the thymus gland weighs up to about half a pound, but it shrinks to a fraction of an ounce by age 60. In short, it virtually disappears.

But we may need the thymus gland to help prevent our immune system from deteriorating. The thymus gland produces hormones that may be responsible for keeping our immune system intact, as well as stimulating and controlling the production of neurotransmitters, which are chemical messengers that serve as the go-between among nerve cells.

Time also brings with it subtle body changes that may confuse your immune system. That confusion results in the body's production of antibodies against itself, since it believes its own cells to be a threat to your well-being. In essence, aging increases the chances that the body will turn against itself and destroy its own tissues. Autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis or lupus may be the result.

In the next post, learn about how aging effects the metabolic process and your mental health.