On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ

 On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ 

Special Communication by William D. Edwards, MD;  Wesley  J. Gabel,  MDiv; Floyd E. Hosmer, MS,  AMI .

  Jesus  of Nazareth underwent Jewish and  Roman trials,  was flogged, and  was sentenced to death by  crucifixion. The scourging produced deep stripelike lacerations and  appreciable  blood loss, and  it probably  set the stage for hypovolemic shock as evidenced by  the fact that Jesus  was  too weakened  to carry  the  crossbar  (patibulum) to  Golgotha.  At  the  site  of crucifixion his  wrists  were  nailed to  the  patibulum, and after the patibulum was  lifted  onto the  upright  post, (stipes)  his feet  were  nailed to  the  stipes. The major pathophysiologic  effect of  crucifixion  was  an interference  with normal respirations. Accordingly,  death  resulted  primarily from hypovolemic shock and exhaustion  asphyxia. Jesus’ death  was ensured  by  the thrust of a soldier’s spear into his side. Modern medical interpretation of the historical evidence indicates that Jesus  was dead  when taken down  from the cross.    (JAMA  1986; 255:1455-1463) 

THE LIFE and teachings of  Jesus of   Nazareth  have  formed the basis  for a   major world  religion, (Christianity)   have appreciably influenced the   course  of human history, and, by   virtue  of a compassionate  attitude   toward  the  sick, also have contributed   to the development of modern  medi- cine. The eminence of Jesus as a   historical figure and the suffering,   and controversy associated  with  his   death has stimulated us  to investi- gate, in an interdisciplinary manner,   the circumstances  surrounding his  crucifixion. Accordingly it is our intent to present not a theological  treatise but rather a medically, and  historically accurate  account of the physical death of the one called  Jesus Christ. 

SOURCES 

From the Departments of Pathology  (Dr.  Edwards) and Medical Graphics  (Mr.  Hosmer),  Mayo  Clinic, Rochester,  Minn; and the Homestead United  Methodist Church, Rochester,  Minn,  and  the  West Bethel United Methodist Church,  Bethel, Minn (Pastor Gabel). Reprint requests to Department of  Pathology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester,  MN  55905 (Dr Edwards). JAMA March 21, 1986—Vol 255,  No. 11.

The source  material concerning Christ’s  death comprises  a  body of literature and not a physical body or  its skeletal  remains.  Accordingly, the credibility of any discussion of Jesus’  death will be determined primarily by  the credibility of one’s sources. For this review, the source material  includes the writings of  ancient  Christian and non-Christian authors,  the writings of modern  authors, and the Shroud of Turin.1-40  Using the  legal-historical  method of scientific investigation,27  scholars have established the reliability and accuracy of the ancient manuscripts. 26,27,29,31 

The most extensive and detailed  descriptions of the life and death of  Jesus are to be found  in the New Testament gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.1  The other 23 books of the New Testament support but do not expand on the details recorded in the  gospels. Contemporary Christian,  Jewish, and Roman  authors provide  additional insight concerning the first-century Jewish and Roman legal systems and the details of  scourging and crucifixion.5  Seneca, Livy, Plutarch, and others refer to crucifixion  practices in their  works.8,28  Specifically, Jesus (or his  crucifixion) is  mentioned by the  Roman historians Cornelius Tacitus, Pliny the Younger, and  Suetonius, by non-Roman historians  Thallus and Phlegon, by  the satirist Lucian of  Samosata, by the Jewish Talmud, and by  the Jewish historian  Flavius Josephus, although the authenticity of portions of the latter  is problematic.26 

The Shroud of Turin is considered by many to represent the actual burial cloth of Jesus,22  and several publications concerning the medical aspects of his death  draw conclusions from this assumption.5,11  The Shroud of Turin and recent archaeological  findings provide  valuable information  concerning Roman crucifixion practices. 22-24  The interpretations  of modern writers, based on a knowledge of science and medicine not available in the first century, may offer additional insight concerning the  possible mechanisms of Jesus’  death. 2-17 

When taken in concert  certain facts—the extensive and early testimony of both Christian proponents  and opponents, and their universal acceptance  of Jesus as a true  historical figure; the ethic of the gospel  writers, and the shortness of the time  interval between the events and the extant manuscripts; and the confirmation of the gospel accounts by  historians and archaeological findings 26-27—ensure a reliable  testimony from which a modern medical interprettation of Jesus’  death may be made. 

GETHSEMANE 

After Jesus and his disciples had observed the Passover meal in an  upper room in a home in southwest Jerusalem,  they traveled to the  Mount of Olives, northeast of the city (Fig  1). (Owing to various adjustments in  the calendar, the years  of Jesus’ birth and  death remain controversial. 29  However, it is likely that Jesus was born in either 4 or 6 BC and died in 30 AD.11, 29  During the Passover observance in  30 AD,  the Last  Supper would have been  observed on Thursday,  April 6 [Nisan 13], and Jesus would have been crucified on Friday, April 7 [Nisan 14]. 29) At nearby Gethsemane, Jesus, apparently knowing that the time of his death was near, suffered great mental anguish, and, as described by the physician Luke, his sweat became like blood.1 

Although this is a very rare phenomenon, bloody sweat (hematidrosis or hemohidrosis) may occur in highly emotional states or in persons with bleeding disorders.18-20 As a result of hemorrhage into the sweat glands, the skin becomes fragile and tender.2,11 Luke’s description supports the diagnosis of hematidrosis rather than eccrine chromidrosis (brown or yellow-green sweat) or stigmatization (blood oozing from the palms or elsewhere).18-21 Although some authors have suggested that hematidrosis produced hypovolemia, we agree with Bucklin5 that Jesus’ actual blood loss probably was minimal. However, in the cold night air,1 it may have produced chills.

MAP: To Bethlehem and Hebron Kidron ValleyTo Bethany Mount of Olives Garden of Gethsemane Fortress of Antonia Possible Golgotha Traditional Golgotha (Calvary) To Joppa Herod Antipas’ Palace Herod’s Palace Caiaphas’ Residence Upper Room Lower City Upper City Temple Suburb To Sychem and Damascus Feet MTo Salt Sea Hinnom ValleyTo Bethlehem and Hebron Kidron Valley To Bethany Mount of Olives Garden of Gethsemane Fortress of Antonia Possible Golgotha Traditional Golgotha (Calvary) To Joppa Herod Antipas’ Palace Herod’s Palace Caiaphas’ Residence Upper Room Lower City Upper City Temple Suburb To Sychem and Damascus 

 Fig 1.—Map of Jerusalem at time of Christ. Jesus left Upper Room and walked with disciples to Mount of Olives and Garden of Gethsemane (1), where he was arrested and taken first to Annas and then to Caiaphas (2). After first trial before political Sanhedrin at Caiaphas’ residence, Jesus was tried again before religious Sanhedrin, probably at Temple (3) Next, he was taken to Pontius Pilate (4), who sent him to Herod Antipas (5). Herod returned Jesus to Pilate (6), and Pilate finally handed over Jesus for scourging at Fortress of Antonia and for crucifixion at Golgotha (7). (Modified from Pfeiffer et al.30)

 TRIAL

 Jewish Trials 

Soon after midnight, Jesus was arrested at Gethsemane by the temple officials and was taken first to Annas and then to Caiaphas, the Jewish high priest for that year (Fig 1).1 Between 1 AM and daybreak, Jesus was tried before Caiaphas and the political Sanhedrin and was found guilty of blasphemy.1 The guards then blindfolded Jesus, spat on him, and struck him in the face with their fists.1 Soon after daybreak, presumably at the temple (Fig l), Jesus was tried before the religious Sanhedrin (with the Pharisees and the Sadducees) and again was found guilty of blasphemy, a crime punishable by death.1,5 

 Roman Trials 

Since permission for an execution had to come from the governing Romans,1 Jesus was taken early in the morning by the temple officials to the Praetorium of the Fortress of Antonia, the residence and governmental seat of Pontius Pilate, the procurator of Judea (Fig 1). However, Jesus was presented to Pilate not as a blasphemer but rather as a self-appointed king who would undermine the Roman authority.1 Pilate made no charges against Jesus and sent him to  Herod Antipas, the tetrarch of Judea.1 Herod likewise made no official charges and then returned Jesus to Pilate (Fig 1).1 Again, Pilate could find no basis for a legal charge against Jesus, but the people persistently demanded crucifixion. Pilate finally granted their demand and handed over Jesus to be flogged (scourged) and crucified. (McDowell25 has reviewed the prevailing political, religious, and economic climates in Jerusalem at the time of Jesus’ death, and Bucklin5 has described the various illegalities of the Jewish and Roman trials.) 

Health of Jesus 

The rigors of Jesus’ ministry (that is, traveling by foot throughout Palestine) would have precluded any major physical illness or a weak general constitution. Accordingly, it is reasonable to assume that Jesus was in good physical condition before his walk to Gethsemane. However, during the 12 hours between 9 PM Thursday and 9 AM Friday, he had suffered great emotional stress (as evidenced by hematidrosis), abandonment by his closest friends (the disciples), and a physical beating (after the first Jewish trial). Also, in the setting of a traumatic and sleepless night, he had been forced to walk more than 2.5 miles (4.0 km) to and from the sites of the various trials (Fig 1). These physical and emotional factors may have rendered Jesus particularly vulnerable to the adversey hemodynamic effects of the scourging. 

SCOURGING 

Scourging Practices

 Flogging was a legal preliminary to every Roman execution,28 and only women and Roman senators or soldiers (except in cases of desertion) were exempt.11 The usual instrument was a short whip (flagellum or flagel- lum) with several single or braided leather thongs of variable lengths, in which small iron balls or sharp pieces of sheep bones were tied at intervals (Fig 2).5,7,11 Occasionally, staves also were used.8,12 For scourging, the man was stripped of his clothing, and his hands were tied to an upright post (Fig 2).11 The back, buttocks, and legs were flogged either by two soldiers (lictors) or by one who alternated positions.5,7,11,28 The severity of the scourging depended on the disposition of the lictors and was intended to weaken the victim to a state just short of collapse or death.8 After the scourging, the soldiers often taunted their victim.11 

Fig 2.—Scourging.  Left, Short  whip  (flagrum)  with lead  balls  and  sheep  bones  tied  into  leather  thongs.  Center   left, Naked victim tied to flogging post. Deep  stripelike lacerations were usually  associated with considerable blood loss. Center right, View  from  above, showing  position of lictors. Right, Inferomedial direction of wounds. 

Medical Aspects of Scourging 

As the Roman soldiers repeatedly struck the victim’s back with full force, the iron balls would cause deep contusions, and the leather thongs and sheep bones would cut into the skin and subcutaneous tissues.7 Then, as the flogging continued, the lacerations would tear into the underlying skeletal muscles and produce quivering ribbons of bleeding flesh. 2,7,25 Pain and blood loss generally set the stage for circulatory shock.12 The extent of blood loss may well have determined how long the victim would survive on the cross.8 

Scourging of Jesus 

At the Praetorium, Jesus was severely whipped. (Although the severity of the scourging is not discussed in the four gospel accounts, it is implied in one of the epistles [1 Peter 2:24]. A detailed word study of the ancient Greek text for this verse indicates that the scourging of Jesus was particularly harsh.33) It is not known whether the number of lashes was limited to 39, in accordance with Jewish law.5 The Roman soldiers, amused that this weakened man had claimed to be a king, began to mock him by placing a robe on his shoulders, a crown of thorns on his head, and a wooden staff as a scepter in his right hand.1 Next, they spat on Jesus 14 and struck him on the head with the wooden staff.1 Moreover, when the soldiers tore the robe from Jesus’ back, they probably reopened the scourging wounds.7 

The severe scourging, with its intense pain and appreciable blood loss, most probably left Jesus in a preshock state. Moreover, hematidrosis had rendered his skin particularly tender. The physical and mental abuse meted out by the Jews and the Romans, as well as the lack of food, water, and sleep, also contributed to his generally weakened state. Therefore, even before the actual crucifixion, Jesus’ physical condition was at least serious and possibly critical.

 CRUCIFIXION 

Crucifixion Practices 

Crucifixion probably first began among the Persians.34 Alexander the Great introduced the practice to Egypt and Carthage, and the Romans appear to have learned of it from the Carthaginians.11 Although the Romans did not invent crucifixions they perfected it as a form of torture and capital punishment that was designed to produce a slow death with maximum pain and suffering.10,17 It was one of the most disgraceful and cruel methods of execution and usually was reserved only for slaves, foreigners, revolutionaries, and the vilest of criminals.3,25,28 Roman law usually protected Roman citizens from crucifixion,5 except perhaps in the ease of desertion by soldiers.

In its earliest form in Persia, the victim was either tied to a tree or was tied to or impaled on an upright post, usually to keep the guilty victim’s feet from touching holy ground. 8,11,30,34,38 Only later was a true cross used; it was characterized by an upright post (stipes) and a horizontal crossbar (patibulum), and it had several variations (Table).11 Although archaeological and historical evidence strongly indicates that the low Tau cross was preferred by the Romans in Palestine at the time of Christ (Fig 3), 2,7,11 crucifixion practices often varied in a given geographic region and in accordance with the imagination of the executioners, and the Latin cross and other forms also may have been used.28 

It was customary for the condemned man to carry his own cross from the flogging post to the site of crucifixion outside the city walls.8,11,30 He was usually naked, unless this was prohibited by local customs.11 Since the weight of the entire cross was probably well over 300 lb (136 kg), only the crossbar was carried (Fig 3).11 The patibulum, weighing 75 to 125 lb. (34 to 57 kg),11,30 was placed across the nape of the victim’s neck and balanced along both shoulders. Usually, the outstretched arms then were tied to the crossbar.7,11 The processional to the site of crucifixion was led by a complete Roman military guard, headed by a centurion.3,11 One of the soldiers carried a sign (titulus) on which the condemned man’s name and crime were displayed (Fig 3).3,11 Later, the titulus would be attached to the top of the cross.11 The Roman guard would not leave the victim until they were sure of his death.9,11

Fig 3.—Cross and  titulus.  Left, victim carrying crossbar (patibulum) to  site of upright post (stipes). Center  Low   Tau cross (crux  commissa), commonly  used by  Romans at time  of Christ. Upper right, Rendition  of Jesus’ titulus with name  and  crime—Jesus of  Nazareth, King  of  the Jews—written in  Hebrew, Latin,  and Greek. Lower right   Possible methods for  attaching tittles to Tau  cross (left) and Latin  cross (right). 

 Outside the city walls was permanently located the heavy upright wooden stipes, on which the patibulum would be secured. In the case of the Tau cross, this was accomplished by means of a mortise and tenon joint, with or without reinforcement  by ropes.10,11,30 To prolong the crucifixion process, a horizontal wooden block or plank, serving as a crude seat (sedile or sedulum), often was attached midway down the stipes.3,11,16 Only very rarely, and probably later than the time of Christ, was an additional block (suppedaneum) employed for transfixion of the feet.9,11 

At the site of execution, by law, the victim was given a bitter drink of wine mixed with myrrh (gall) as a mild analgesic.7,17 The criminal was then thrown to the ground on his back, with his arms outstretched along the patibulum.11 The hands could be nailed or tied to the crossbar, but nailing apparently was preferred by the Romans.8,11 The archaeological remains of a crucified body, found in an ossuary near Jerusalem and dating from the time of Christ, indicate that the nails were tapered iron spikes approximately 5 to 7 in (13 to 18 cm) long with a square shaft 3/8 in (1 cm) across.23,24,30 Furthermore, ossuary findings and the Shroud of Turin have documented that the nails commonly were driven through the wrists rather than the palms (Fig 4).22-24,30

Fig 4.—Nailing of  wrists. Left, Size  of  iron  nail. Center,  Location  of  nail in  wrist, between carpals  and  radius.  Right, Cross   section  of wrist,  at  level of  plane indicated  at left,  showing path  of  nail, with probable  transection  of median  nerve and   impalement  of flexor  pollicis  longus,  but  without  injury  to major  arterial  trunks  and without  fractures  of  bones. 

After both arms were fixed to the crossbar, the patibulum and the victim, together, were lifted onto the stipes.11 On the low cross, four soldiers could accomplish this relatively easily. However, on the tall cross, the soldiers used either wooden forks or ladders.11 

Next, the feet were fixed to the cross, either by nails or ropes. Ossuary findings and the Shroud of Turin suggest that nailing was the preferred Roman practice.23,24,30 Although the feet could be fixed to the sides of the stipes or to a wooden footrest (suppedaneum), they usually were nailed directly to the front of the stipes (Fig 5).11 To accomplish this, flexion of the knees may have been quite prominent, and the bent legs may have been rotated laterally (Fig 6).23-25,30

ers adducted and with weight of body on nailed feet, exhalation is accomplished as active, rather than passive, process. Breaking legs below knees would place burden of exhalation on shoulder and arm muscles alone and soon would result in exhaustion asphyxia. 

When the nailing was completed, the titulus was attached to the cross, by nails or cords, just above the victim’s head.11 The soldiers and the civilian crowd often taunted and jeered the condemned man, and the soldiers customarily divided up his clothes among themselves11,25 The length of survival generally ranged from three or four hours to three or four days and appears to have been inversely related to the severity of the scourging.8,11 However, even if the scourging had been relatively mild, the Roman soldiers could hasten death by breaking the legs below the knees (crurifragium or skelokopia).8,11 

Not uncommonly, insects would light upon or burrow into the open wounds or the eyes, ears, and nose of the dying and helpless victim, and birds of prey would tear at these sites.16 Moreover, it was customary to leave the corpse on the cross to be devoured by predatory animals.8,11,12,28 However, by Roman law, the family of the condemned could take the body for burial, after obtaining permission from the Roman judge.11 

Since no one was intended to survive crucifixion, the body was not released to the family until the soldiers were sure that the victim was dead. By custom, one of the Roman guards would pierce the body with a sword or lance.8,11 Traditionally, this had been considered a spear wound to the heart through the right side of the chest—a fatal wound probably taught to most Roman soldiers.11 The Shroud of Turin documents this form of injury.5,11,22 Moreover, the standard infantry spear, which was 5 to 6 ft (1.5 to 1.8 m) long,30 could easily have reached the chest of a man crucified on the customary low cross.11 

Medical Aspects of Crucifixion 

With knowledge of both anatomy and ancient crucifixion practices, one may reconstruct the probable medical aspects of this form of slow execution. Each wound apparently was intended to produce intense agony, and the contributing causes of death were numerous. 

The scourging prior to crucifixion served to weaken the condemned man and, if blood loss was considerable, to produce orthostatic hypotension and even hypovolemic shock.8,12 When the victim was thrown to the ground on his back, in preparation for transfixion of the hands, his scourging wounds most likely would become torn open again and contaminated with dirt.2,16 Furthermore, with each respiration, the painful scourging wounds would be scraped against the rough wood of the stipes.7 As a result, blood loss from the back probably would continue throughout the crucifixion ordeal. 

With arms outstretched but not taut, the wrists were nailed to the patibulum.7,11 It has been shown that the ligaments and bones of the wrist can support the weight of a body hanging from them, but the palms cannot.11 Accordingly, the iron spikes probably were driven between the radius and the carpals or between the two rows of carpal bones,2,10,11,30 either proximal to or through the strong bandlike flexor retinaculum and the various intercarpal ligaments (Fig 4). Although a nail in either location in the wrist might pass between the bony elements and thereby produce no fractures, the likelihood of painful periosteal injury would seem great. Furthermore, the driven nail would crush or sever the rather large sensorimotor median nerve (Fig 4).2,7,11 The stimulated nerve would produce excruciating bolts of fiery pain in both arms.7,9 Although the severed median nerve would result in paralysis of a portion of the hand, ischemic contractures and impalement of various ligaments by the iron spike might produce a clawlike grasp. 

Most commonly, the feet were fixed to the front of the stipes by means of an iron spike driven through the first or second intermetatarsal space, just distal to the tarsometatarsal joint.2,5,8,11,30 It is likely that the deep peroneal nerve and branches of the medial and lateral plantar nerves would have been injured by the nails (Fig 5). Although scourging may have resulted in considerable blood loss, crucifixion per se was a relatively bloodless procedure, since no major arteries, other than perhaps the deep plantar arch, pass through the favored anatomic sites of transfixion.2,10,11 

The major pathophysiologic effect of crucifixion, beyond the excruciateing pain, was a marked interference with normal respiration, particularly exhalation (Fig 6). The weight of the body, pulling down on the out- stretched arms and shoulders, would tend to fix the intercostal muscles in an inhalation state and thereby hinder passive exhalation.2,10,11 Accordingly, exhalation was primarily dia- phragmatic, and breathing was shallow. It is likely that this form of respiration would not suffice and that hypercarbia would soon result. The onset of muscle cramps or tetanic contractions, due to fatigue and hypercarbia, would hinder respiration even further.11 

Adequate exhalation required lifting the body by pushing up on the feet and by flexing the elbows and adducting the shoulders (Fig 6).2 However, this maneuver would place the entire weight of the body on the tarsals and would produce searing pain.7 Furthermore, flexion of the elbows would cause rotation of the wrists about the iron nails and cause fiery pain along the damaged median nerves.7 Lifting of the body would also painfully scrape the scourged back against the rough wooden stipes.2,7 Muscle cramps and paresthesias of the outstretched and uplifted arms would add to the discomfort.7 As a result, each respiratory effort would become agonizing and tiring and lead eventually to asphyxia.2,3,7,10 

The actual cause of death by crucifixion was multifactorial and varied somewhat with each case, but the two most prominent causes probably were hypovolemic shock and exhaustion asphyxia.2,3,7,10 Other possible contributing factors included dehydration,7,16 stress-induced arrhythmias, 3 and congestive heart failure with the rapid accumulation of pericardial and perhaps pleural effusions. 2,7,11 Crucifracture (breaking the legs below the knees), if performed, led to an asphyxic death within minutes.11 Death by crucifixion was, in every sense of the word, excruciating (Latin, excruciatus, or “out of the cross”). 

Crucifixion of Jesus 

After the scourging and the mocking, at about 9 AM, the Roman soldiers put Jesus’ clothes back on him and then led him and two thieves to be crucified.1 Jesus apparently was so weakened by the severe flogging that he could not carry the patibulum from the Praetorium to the site of crucifixion one third of a mile (600 to 650 m) away.1,3,5,7 Simon of Cyrene was summoned to carry Christ’s cross, and the processional then made its way to Golgotha (or Calvary), an established crucifixion site. 

Here, Jesus’ clothes, except for a linen loin cloth, again were removed, thereby probably reopening the scourging wounds. He then was offered a drink of wine mixed with myrrh (gall) but, after tasting it, refused the drink.1 Finally, Jesus and the two thieves were crucified. Although scriptural references are made to nails in the hands,1 these are not at odds with the archaeological evidence of wrist wounds, since the ancients customarily considered the wrist to be a part of the hand. 7,11 The titulus (Fig 3) was attached above Jesus’ head. It is unclear whether Jesus was crucified on the Tau cross or the Latin cross; archaeological findings favor the former11 and early tradition the latter.38 The fact that Jesus later was offered a drink of wine vinegar from a sponge placed on the stalk of the hyssop plant1 (approximately 20 in, or 50 cm, long) strongly supports the belief that Jesus was crucified on the short cross.6 

The soldiers and the civilian crowd taunted Jesus throughout the crucifixion ordeal, and the soldiers cast lots for his clothing.1 Christ spoke seven times from the cross.1 Since speech occurs during exhalation, these short, terse utterances must have been particularly difficult and painful. At about 3 PM that Friday, Jesus cried out in a loud voice, bowed his head, and died.1 The Roman soldiers and onlookers recognized his moment of death.1 

Since the Jews did not want the bodies to remain on the crosses after sunset, the beginning of the Sabbath, they asked Pontius Pilate to order crucifracture to hasten the deaths of the three crucified men.1 The soldiers broke the legs of the two thieves, but when they came to Jesus and saw that he was already dead, they did not break his legs.1 Rather, one of the soldiers pierced his side, probably with an infantry spear, and produced a sudden flow of blood and water.1 Later that day, Jesus’ body was taken down from the cross and placed in a tomb.1 

DEATH OF JESUS 

Two aspects of Jesus’ death have been the source of great controversy, namely, the nature of the wound in his side 4,6 and the cause of his death after only several hours on the cross.13-17

 The gospel of John describes the piercing of Jesus’ side and emphasizes the sudden flow of blood and water.1 Some authors have interpreted the flow of water to be ascites12 or urine, from an abdominal midline perforation of the bladder.15 However, the Greek word (πλευρα, or pleura)32,35,36 used by John clearly denoted laterality and often implied the ribs.6,32,36 Therefore, it seems probable that the wound was in the thorax and well away from the abdominal midline. 

Although the side of the wound was not designated by John, it traditionally has been depicted on the right side.4 Supporting this tradition is the fact that a large flow of blood would be more likely with a perforation of the distended and thin-walled right atrium or ventricle than the thick- walled and contracted left ventricle. Although the side of the wound may never be established with certainty, the right seems more probable than the left. 

Some of the skepticism in accepting John’s description has arisen from  the difficulty in explaining, with medical accuracy, the flow of both blood and water. Part of this difficulty has been based on the assumption that the blood appeared first, then the water. However, in the ancient Greek, the order of words generally denoted prominence and not necessarily a time sequence.37 Therefore, it seems likely that John was emphasizing the prominence of blood rather than its   appearance preceding the water. 

Therefore, the water probably represented serous pleural and pericardial fluid,5-7,11 and would have preceded the flow of blood and been smaller in volume than the blood. Perhaps in the setting of hypovolemia and impending acute heart failure, pleural and pericardial effusions may have developed and would have added to the volume of apparent water.5,11 The blood, in contrast, may have originated from the right atrium or the right ventricle (Fig 7) or perhaps from a hemopericardium.5,7,11 

Fig 7.—Spear wound to  chest.  Left,  Probable path of  spear. Right, Cross  section of  thorax, at level of  plane   indicated  at  left,  showing  structures  perforated  by  spear.  LA  indicates left  atrium;  LV,  left  ventricle;  RA, right   atrium; RV,  right ventricle. 

 

Jesus’ death after only three to six hours on the cross surprised even Pontius Pilate.1 The fact that Jesus cried out in a loud voice and then bowed his head and died suggests the possibility of a catastrophic terminal event. One popular explanation has been that Jesus died of cardiac rupture. In the setting of the scourging and crucifixions with associated hypovolemia, hypoxemia, and perhaps an altered coagulable state, friable non- infective thrombotic vegetations could have formed on the aortic or mitral valve. These then could have dislodged and embolized into the coronary circulation and thereby produced an acute transmural myocardial infarction. Thrombotic valvular vegetations have been reported to develop under analogous acute traumatic conditions.39 Rupture of the left ventricular free wall may occur, though uncommonly, in the first few hours following infarction.40 However, another explanation may be more likely. Jesus’ death may have been hastened simply by his state of exhaustion and by the severity of the scourging, with its resultant blood loss and preshock state.7 The fact that he could not carry his patibulum.

     

Thus, it remains unsettled whether Jesus died of cardiac rupture or of cardiorespiratory failure. However, the important feature may be not how he died but rather whether he died. Clearly, the weight of historical and medical evidence indicates that Jesus was dead before the wound to his side was inflicted and supports the traditional view that the spear, thrust between his right ribs, probably perforated not only the right lung but also the pericardium and heart and thereby ensured his death (Fig 7). Accordingly, interpretations based on the assumption that Jesus did not die on the cross appear to be at odds with modern medical knowledge. 

References 

1. Matthew  26:17-27:61, Mark  14:12-15:47,  Luke  22:7-23:56,  John 13:1-19:42,  in  The Holy   Bible  (New  International Version). Grand  Rap- ids, Mich, Zondervan Bible  Publishers, 1978. 

2. Lumpkin  R:  The physical suffering of   Christ.  J Med Assoc  Ala  1978;47:8-10,47. 

3.  Johnson CD: Medical  and cardiological   aspects of the  passion and crucifixion of Jesus,   the Christ.  Bol  Assoc  Med PR  1978;70:97-102. 

4.  Barb  AA: The  wound in  Christ’s  side.  J  Warburg Courtauld Inst  1971;34:320-321. 

5. Bucklin  R:  The  legal and  medical aspects  of   the trial and death of Christ.  Sci Law  1970;  10:14-26. 

6. Mikulicz-Radecki FV: The  chest wound  in   the crucified Christ.  Med News  1966;14:30-40. 

7. Davis CT: The crucifixion of Jesus: The   passion of Christ from a medical  point of view.   Ariz Med  1965;22:183-187. 

8. Tenney SM: On  death by crucifixion.  Am  Heart J  1964;68:286-287. 

9. Bloomquist ER: A doctor looks at  crucifix- ion.  Christian Herald,  March  1964,  pp  35,  46-48. 

10.  DePasquale  NP, Burch  GE: Death  by  cru- cifixion.  Am Heart J  1963;66:434-435. 

11. Barbet  P:  A  Doctor at Calvary:  The Pas- sion of Our Lord Jesus Christ as  Described by  a   Surgeon,  Earl  of Wicklow  (trans).  Garden City,   NY, Doubleday Image Books,  1953,  pp  12-18,   37-147, 159-175,  187-208. 

12. Primrose WB: A surgeon looks  at the   crucifixion.  Hibbert J,  1949, pp  382-388. 

13. Bergsma S: Did  Jesus  die of a broken   heart?  Calvin Forum  1948;14:163-167. 

14. Whitaker  JR:  The physical  cause of the   death of our Lord.  Cath Manchester  Guard   1937;15:83-91. 

15. Clark  CCP: What was  the physical  cause of   the death of Jesus Christ?  Med Rec  1890;38:543. 16. 

16. Cooper HC: The agony of death  by cruci- fixion.  NY  Med J  1883;38:150-153. 

17. Stroud  W:  Treatise  on the Physical Cause of the Death of Christ and Its Relation to the Principles and Practice of Christianity, ed 2. London, Hamilton & Adams, 1871, pp 28-156, 489-494. 

18. Allen AC: The Skin: A Clinicopathological Treatise, ed 2. New York, Grune & Stratton Inc, 1967, pp 745-747. 

19. Sutton RL Jr: Diseases of the Skin, ed 11. St Louis, CV Mosby Co, 1956, pp 1393-1394. 

20. Scott CT: A case of haematidrosis. Br Med J 1918;1:532-533. 

21. Klauder JV: Stigmatization. Arch Derma- tol Syphilol 1938;37:650-659. 

22. Weaver KF: The mystery of the shroud. Natl Geogr 1980:157:730-753. 

23. Tzaferis V: Jewish tombs at and near Giv’at ha-Mivtar, Jerusalem. Israel Explor J 1970;20:18-32. 

24. Haas N: Anthropological observations on the skeletal remains from Giv’at ha-Mivtar. Israel Explor J 1970;20:38-59. 

25. McDowell J: The Resurrection Factor. San Bernardino, Calif, Here’s Life Publishers, 1981, pp 20-53, 75-103. 

26. McDowell J: Evidence That Demands a Verdict: Historical Evidences for the Christian Faith. San Bernardino, Calif, Here’s Life Publishers, 1979, pp 39-87, 141-263. 

27. McDowell J: More Than a Carpenter. Wheaton, Ill, Tyndale House Publishers, 1977, pp 36-71, 89-100. 

28. Hengel M: Crucifixion in the Ancient World and the Folly of the Message of the Cross, Bowden J (trans). Philadelphia, Fortress Press, 1977, pp 22-45, 86-90. 

29. Ricciotti G: The Life of Christ, Zizzamia AI (trans). Milwaukee, Bruce Publishing Co, 1947, pp 29-57, 78-153, 161-167, 586-647. 

30. Pfeiffer CF, Vos HF, Rea J (eds): Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia. Chicago, Moody Press, 1975, pp 149-152, 404-405, 713-723, 1173-1174, 1520- 1523. 

31. Greenleaf S: An Examination of the Testi- mony of the Four Evangelists by the Rules of Evidence Administered in the Courts of Justice. Grand Rapids, Mich, Baker Book House, 1965, p 29. 

32. Hatch E, Redpath HA: A Concordance to the Septuagint and the Other Greek Versions of the Old Testament (Including the Apocryphal Books). Graz, Austria, Akademische Druce U Verlagsanstalt, 1975, p 1142. 

33. Wuest KS: Wuest Word Studies From the Greek New Testament for the English Reader. Grand Rapids, Mich, WB Eerdmans Publisher, 1973, vol 1, p 280. 

34. Friedrich G: Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, Bremiley G (ed-trans). Grand Rapids, Mich, WB Eerdmans Publisher, 1971, vol 7, pp 572, 573, 632. 

35. Arndt WF, Gingrich FW: A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. University of Press, 1957, p 673. Chicago 

 36. Brown F, Driver SR, Briggs CA: A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament With an Appendix Containing the Biblical Aramaic. Oxford, England, Clarendon Press, 1953, pp 841, 854. 

37. Robertson AT: A Grammar of the Greek New Testament in Light of Historical Research. Nashville, Tenn, Broadman Press, 1931, pp 417- 427. 

38. Jackson SM (ed): The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge. New York, Funk & Wagnalls, 1909, pp 312-314. 

39. Kim H-S, Suzuki M, Lie JT, et al: Nonbac- terial thrombotic endocarditis (NBTE) and dis- seminated intravascular coagulation (DIC): Au- topsy study of 36 patients. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1977;101:65-68. 

40. Becker AE, van Mantgem J-P: Cardiac tamponade: A study of 50 hearts. Eur J Cardiol 1975;3:349-358. 1463 JAMA March 21, 1986—Vol 255, No. 11 Death of Christ—Edwards et al