BLOOD CLOTTING, COVID-19 AND VACCINES

 A blood clot is a collection of blood cells and coagulation proteins that clump together, forming a gel-like substance in the blood system that can obstruct blood flow. Blood clots are often triggered by certain events such as injuries, surgeries, or infections. Since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, blood clotting has been identified as a side effect of SARS-CoV-2 and later as an extremely rare side effect of some COVID-19 vaccines.

Yazan Abou-Ismail, MD, a hematologist at University of Utah Health, answered questions about the association of blood clots with COVID-19 and certain vaccines.

Where do blood clots occur?

Deep venous thrombosis (DVT) occurs when a blood clot forms in the deep veins of your body, usually in the lower leg, thigh, or pelvis. A blood clot that travels from the deep veins and blocks one of the arteries in your lungs is called a pulmonary embolism (PE). Both medical conditions may be life-threatening, but are preventable and treatable if discovered early. In the U.S. each year, about 900,000 people experience a blood clot and 100,000 people die from blood clots.

What is the link between blood clots and COVID-19?

The association between COVID-19 and blood clots was recognized early in the pandemic among hospitalized COVID-19 patients. These patients experienced blood clots both in deep veins and arteries, which sometimes led to strokes and heart attacks. Although these conditions have mostly been seen in patients with severe COVID-19 illness, people with moderate illness have also developed blood clots. Data from the beginning of the pandemic indicated that the incidence of blood clots in severe COVID-19 illness ranged from 20 to 40 percent. The incidence in people with mild or moderate COVID-19 illness was three to nine percent. 

Do certain people have a higher risk for developing blood clots if they have COVID-19?

Patients who develop blood clots as a result of COVID-19 infection usually have severe COVID-19 illness (hospitalized in the ICU), respiratory failure, require high amounts of oxygen, or have other underlying illnesses. Other underlying risks for blood clots include patients with a previous medical history of blood clots or a hereditary blood clotting disorder. Those who have hypertension, diabetes, are obese, or have cancer are also at higher risk.

What is the association between blood clotting and certain COVID-19 vaccines?

Some COVID-19 vaccines are associated with an extremely rare syndrome known as vaccine-induced thrombotic thrombocytopenia (VITT). It was discovered in March 2021 in connection to the AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine and then later with the Johnson & Johnson COVID-19 vaccine. In rare cases, antibodies that the body produces as a side effect of the vaccine lead to uncontrolled activation of platelets. This causes both low platelet counts and blood clots to form in unusual areas. VITT is not associated with the Moderna or Pfizer-BioNTech mRNA vaccines. 

According to the CDC, as of June 30, 2021, there have been 35 confirmed reports of VITT in connection to the J&J vaccine out of more than 12 million doses that have been administered in the U.S. In the United Kingdom, there are more than 300 confirmed cases of VITT connected to the AstraZeneca vaccine. Although VITT is extremely rare, it is a serious and treatable condition. Doctors now know how to recognize and treat VITT, and patients who receive the J&J vaccine are informed how to recognize its side effects.

What are symptoms of VITT?

Symptoms of VITT include:

Severe or persistent headaches

Chest pain

Trouble breathing

Leg swelling/pain

Severe abdominal pain

Confusion

Vision changes

Seizures

Anyone experiencing these symptoms within four weeks of vaccination should contact their health care provider or seek immediate medical attention.

What data backs up the fact that VITT is an extremely rare side effect?

Out of more than 12.5 million people who received the J&J vaccine in the U.S., 35 cases have been reported to the CDC. That’s an incidence of two to three cases per million. Both men and women can get VITT but women between the ages of 20 to 50 are at a higher risk of experiencing VITT from the J&J vaccine. In this group, the incidence is about 10 per million, which is also still extremely rare.

The benefits of vaccination outweigh these rare potential risks. The CDC has estimated that every million doses prevent between 60 to 140 deaths and 400 to 1,000 hospitalizations from COVID-19.

Is it possible to experience blood clots months after having COVID-19 or getting a COVID-19 vaccine? 

Based on current information available about VITT, there is no evidence that blood clotting could occur more than four weeks after getting vaccinated. However, blood clotting is possible months after having COVID-19 for patients who have had long hospitalizations, had surgery, are immobilized, or have a history of underlying health conditions such as obesity, diabetes, or blood clots. This is variable based on the patient and length of illness.

What do you tell your patients?

Whenever something like VITT happens, it causes the public to worry. We need to remember that COVID-19 vaccines are very effective at protecting against COVID-19. What I tell my patients is you have to weigh the risks and benefits. The risk of developing serious side effects from COVID-19 vaccines is extremely unlikely. Getting infected with COVID-19 has a much higher risk of complications, such as blood clots, long-term symptoms, and even death.

What if ....continues to cast doubt of the real killer of the victims. Virus  or vaccine or due date. 

Be Aware

 A suburban Chicago family who lost their fully vaccinated father to COVID-19 said they hope his story can help others with certain pre-existing conditions and immune deficiencies as they say his unexpected passing left them with a major "what if."

Alan Sporn, owner and president of Spornette International and an outgoing father of four who was diagnosed with chronic lymphocytic leukemia in 2019, had been taking added precautions throughout the coronavirus pandemic, despite not yet requiring treatment for his cancer.

"We were very careful when we visited him, always wore masks," his daughter Bonnie Sporn told NBC Chicago. "When we came to his house we either ate outside, we would wear masks."

But the 75-year-old hairbrush salesman was eager to get vaccinated as travel was his career and his life. He received his first shot of the Pfizer vaccine in January and his second in early February, his family said.

By March, he had decided to have dinner at a restaurant with some friends, one of whom tested positive for coronavirus in the days following the meal.

Sporn started experiencing a fever and his doctor urged him to go to the emergency room and get tested. There, he found out he was positive for coronavirus.

Doctors told Sporn's family that his lungs were clear and he was able to recover at home.

"That's where we wish we would have paused and hit the pause button because we feel that some communication, some red flag wasn't alerted that because my dad has CLL, even though it's dormant, because he's immunocompromised - anybody with cancer or HIV or lupus, you know, like anybody that has an autoimmune disease - it should be a red flag," Bonnie Sporn said.

Three days later, Sporn was admitted to another hospital. By then, his lungs were "completely covered," his family said.

"He had eight antibodies," Bonnie Sporn said. "And you're supposed to have thousands of [antibodies]. You know after you get your second vaccine, it should show up in your system."

One week later, on March 29, Sporn died. The Cook County Medical Examiner's office listed his primary cause of death as pneumonia caused by the novel coronavirus.

"We feel that if he were given an antibody test when he found out he had COVID it would have alerted us to his low antibody count, and we wouldn't have let him drive home," Bonnie Sporn said. "We would have been, you know, either send him straight to the hospital or at least monitor him."

The Illinois Department of Public Health has so far reported 32 deaths due to COVID-19 or related complications in fully vaccinated individuals since Jan. 1, but further details on those cases aren't available. As of April 28, another 97 "breakthrough" vaccine cases - those who test positive for coronavirus at least two weeks after their final vaccine dose - had been hospitalized.

The Leukemia & Lymphoma Society, citing data from a recent U.K. study, reports that "some blood cancer patients may not get optimal protection from the vaccines and may be more susceptible to COVID-19 infections after vaccination compared to the general public."

In that study from King’s College London, data showed that three weeks after one dose of the Pfizer vaccine, an antibody response was found in 39% of solid cancer patients and just 13% of people with blood cancer, compared to 95% in healthy individuals, the society reported.

The group urged blood cancer patients to continue wearing masks and taking preventative measures like social distancing and handwashing.

Similarly, a recent study from the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center found that "people with cancer that affects the blood, bone marrow or lymph nodes are at elevated risk of COVID-19 vaccine failure, particularly those with chronic lymphocytic leukemia."

The study tested blood from 67 patients with "hematologic malignancies" who had been vaccinated with either the Pfizer or Moderna COVID-19 two-dose vaccines three weeks earlier. The tests found that more than 46% of the participants had not produced antibodies against COVID-19 and only three in 13 patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia had produced measurable antibodies, even though 70% of them weren’t undergoing any form of cancer therapy. 

As we see more national guidance allowing for unmasked gatherings among vaccinated people, clinicians should counsel their immunocompromised patients about the possibility that COVID-19 vaccines may not fully protect them against SARS-CoV-2,” the study's senior author Dr. Ghady Haidar, a transplant infectious diseases physician and assistant professor in the university's Department of Infectious Diseases, said in a statement. “Our results show that the odds of the vaccine producing an antibody response in people with hematologic malignancies are the equivalent of a coin flip.”

According to Haidar, however, a negative antibody test does not necessarily mean a patient isn't protected from the virus.

Many medications and treatments for certain cancers or other conditions can cause immune suppression or weaken an immune system.

The University of Chicago wrote in a blog post in February that there is little-to-no data surrounding the coronavirus vaccines' effectiveness in immunocompromised people because they weren't included in the vaccines' initial trials.

"Researchers don’t know whether these immunosuppressant treatments make the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines less effective – as some do in the case of flu vaccines – or if pausing or delaying treatment could make the vaccines work better. But it’s important that patients not change their treatment schedule without first speaking to their doctor," the university's post read.

With little data to offer, the Leukemia & Lymphoma Society is asking those living with blood cancers to register to become a "citizen scientist" and share their experiences with COVID-19 and the vaccines currently available.

The Sporns said they hope people continue getting vaccinated, but also want their father's story to raise awareness for the need to take added precautions.

"It's just extremely sad and, you know, everybody does a what if," Bonnie Sporn said. "So we're trying to help people with their what ifs. What if this person has a pre-existing condition? Should they get the vaccine? Should they be monitored? Should they still wear masks until... until when?"

Sporn's obituary states that he "made friends where ever he went -- in school, traveling and through work."

"He left a warm and loving impression on everyone he met, even if it was for just a brief meeting," the obituary read. "He knew people in every city he visited and even knew the airlines that got you directly to that city. He did not know a stranger. Alan was so generous with his time and love. He was a very loyal friend, a mentor, and a philanthropist. To honor Alan please do something nice for someone or reach out to an old  friend."

Origin of 'Black Friday'

 

Link Between Black Friday and African Slavery

November 24, 2017Zulumathabo

By Zulumathabo Zulu © 2017

Link Between Black Friday and Suffering of African Descendants
(Why you must not buy on Black Friday, Friday 24, 2017 in South Africa)

The Preamble

I am sharing my thoughts about whether there is a link between Black Friday and the suffering of our people. As a matter of scientific fact, there is a link between Black Friday and the enslavement of the African descendants in America and here is how.

The Snopes Article

First of all, the Snopes website which touts itself as “the definitive fact-checking and Internet reference source for urban legends, folklore, myths, rumors, and misinformation” published this article How Did ‘Black Friday’ Get Its Name?

This article purportedly debunked any kind of link between Black Friday and the slavery of the ancestors of the African Americans. The purpose of my article is to show the historical genesis of Black Friday and that the current post-Thanksgiving Black Friday may be a derivative of that historical Black Friday especially in the light of public figures like Tony Braxton who have vowed not to do any purchases on Black Friday in honour of the memory of her African ancestors who were brutalized on Black Friday during the slavery era and long before President Abram Lincoln Emancipation Proclamation of January 31, 1863 and the 13th Ammendment of December 6, 1865 which ended slavery in the Union.

The Snopes article basically dismisses in toto the connection between Black Friday and the suffering of the ancestors of African descendants in the Diaspora. The article does not even give a fighting chance to the African American community in this matter.

The writer of the Snopes article is unaware that there exists an epistemic and ontic link between the concept of Black Friday and the suffering of our African people in America. Even if the actual dates may vary but the Snopes article, if it was motivated by intellectual honesty, was supposed to transcend the operational details of specificity and do due diligence by forensic investigation of archival records to make a determination at the strategic knowledge level by asking the question “Could the post-Thanksgiving Black Friday be a derivative of the historical Black Friday in which the African ancestors were brutalized during the slavery period of our historical past?”. If Snopes had done this, it would have arrived at a different conclusion in the interest of fair, accurate and scientific body of knowledge.

Their Suffering Is The Moral Compass

It is my view that only the one who wears the shoe knows the experience of the shoe pinching. The one who is not wearing the shoe can only imagine and speculate about the shoe. We should allow the descendants of those who were brutalized by the slavery society to guide our conscience in terms of the right thing to do. Their experiences and suffering should be like the polar magnets that guide our moral compass. In this way, we can be on the path towards a peaceful and more equitable coexistence to build a society that is peaceful, prosperous and free from poverty, disease, crime and civil conflict.

The Strategic Knowledge of Survival

Before diving into the details of this article, let’s take an erudite page from the objective jungle. A lot of this symbolic modeling comes from my unpublished book The African Rules of the Jungle. In the jungle, the purpose of knowledge is to enhance your survival experience.

It is extremely important that in the agnostic jungle and for survival reasons, the prudent organism does not rely exclusively on the literal domain as the only source of survival knowledge. If the naive organism relied on this kind of epistemic exclusivity, it would incur a survival reducing experience, or worse, it would subject itself to a serious survival disadvantage.

As a matter of a principle that is existential to the survival of the organism, the erudite organism must also derive survival knowledge from other knowledges that are produced by the symbolic and perceptual domains in order to better understand and adapt to the perturbations of the environment that is continously posing an impressive threat to its survival experience. The erudite organism must continously be making selfless, clannish and tactical maneuvers to improve its survivability.

Using the synergistic synthesis of literal, symbolic and perceptual domains, the prudent and highly drilled organism (supported by the ethical clan) is in a better position to be correctly guided by the moral code that enhances its survival experience (and that of the members of the clan) in the turbulant environment of the terrestrial space. It is this kind of strategic knowledge that gives epistemic and holistic access to the ways of knowing about the environment in order to increase the survival advantage failing which the organism is impeded and seriously disadvantaged.

The Historical Origin of Black Friday

The great scholar and legend of African descent Dr. Carter Woodson (Woodson, 1919) refers to Black Friday in his book The Education of the Negro. January 21, 1830 was declared Black Friday at Portsmouth, Ohio were Black families were broken up and traumatized as a result of several hundred armed white men who intimidated, persecuted and demanded that all Black men must leave town, leaving behind their wives and children.

The story is further taken up in a university dissertation Forgotten: Scioto County’s Lost Black History by Rebecca Jenkins for her Master of Arts for the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University wherein she gives more details.

She says (Jenkins, 2015) in her dissertation:

“This story not only highlights the struggles that members of the Black community in the area have faced, but also demonstrates the abundance of Black history in Scioto County, and the causes of the erasure of this history.”

Jenkins tells us that the Black men on that Black Friday were escorted (by armed and angry White men; local police and others) to the city outskirts and warned never to return. What an icredible inhumanity of man to another man? I became teary as I read these lines! I couldn’t wrap my mind around this kind of wholesale misanthropist behaviour designed to orphan the children from their biological fathers? It is hard enough to become a free man in a slave society. As if this is not hard enough; an army of bellicose white men descend upon Black families to demand that their husbands and fathers leave town and never to return. This is gut-wrenching! This is gross! This is flagrant cruelty of the highest order to the innocent victims! This is hard!

The journalists who reported on this tragic and fateful event referred to this day as Black Friday. This was during the days of slavery and more than 35 years before the abolition of slavery by the American President Abram Lincoln in December 6, 1865.

(Jenkins, 2015) adds:

“This erasure of Black citizens from Portsmouth’s history is part of a larger trend of disremembering the distinct historical struggle of Black citizens, both locally and nationally. We must stop this trend going forward, and find new ways to integrate the stories of our pasts.”

This harsh historical experience is corroborated by other scholars like Andrew Feight, Ph.D. in the article “Black Friday”: Enforcing Ohio’s “Black Laws” in Portsmouth, Ohio: The Origins of the African-American Community of Huston Hollow.

There you have it; an uncontested fact that establishes the connection between the enslaved people of African descent in America and Black Friday. In the American history, there has always been a connection between Black people and the Black Friday which begs the question: what kind of history pages is the Snopes website reading from? .

The idea of offering enslaved Africans on discount on Black Friday needs to be investigated in order to vigorously and rigorously establish the empirical facts; this may or may not be the case. The discounting of enslaved Africans is attested for in a number of scholarly papers and archival records but as to these discounts happening on Black Friday needs the rigorous work of scholars and forensic investigators using the scientific methods to uncover what is the case.

Tony Braxton recently told the media that she is not buying on Black Friday in honour of her ancestors who suffered untold cruelty. I am joining her in this regard. Are you going to also support and honour the memory of our ancestors who were forced to leave behind their beloved ones because they were not wanted? It is a cruel fact that a Black man is the main target of the White establishment for destruction so that they can control and manipulate the Black family in the absence of the protector who is also the medicine man.

My Personal Experience and Consideration

To add to this in terms of what should be the moral code going forward, I would like to make two points namely (1) economic sanctions against apartheid South Africa and (2) my Discheme Pharmacy experience.

(1) Sanctions Against Apartheid.

There was a campaign of international sanctions against apartheid led by powerful figures like Archbishop Desmond Tutu who urged the International community to boycott apartheid South Africa in the economy, business, sports and cultural matters. I was a young and greenhorn journalist in the 1980s. I didn’t have much knowledge then but I decided to trust my instincts with regards to the right thing to do and that was to allow my conscience to be guided by what the oppressed people said and that was we don’t buy from white businesses and I did that.

Perhaps my little buying was a meer drop in the occean but that was enough for me to follow suit. That little insignificant sacrifice was enough to turn the tide against apartheid and its eventual collapse. The Basotho say “Molapo otlala ka melatswana” meaning the river garthers strength and becomes powerful as a result of the small and insignificant tributaries.

(2) My Discheme Pharmacy Experience in South Africa.

Last evening (Thursday) I went to buy some food supplement at the pharmacy and just as I entered the door, the security guard stopped me to say it is closed. I pleaded with him and it didn’t help. He said I must come tomorrow which is Black Friday. I said to myself I will come tomorrow to buy because I am not buying for Black Friday sales but what I need. A cosmic insight interceded that isn’t buying on Black Friday (for whatever reason) going against the moral code of Tony Braxton and her people who said not to support the economic system that was built on the misery and suffering of their ancestors on that day? Shouldn’t the voices of the oppressed be the moral compass in this matter? I decided to be guided by that moral compass. Therefore, I am not buying those food supplements on Black Friday and will wait until after Black Friday to buy them.

Concluding Remarks

I would like to say that our people who write articles on these matters must also make a good faith attempt to be rigorous and meticulous in their style so as not to subject us to the ridicule in the hands of those who seek to subjugate us; to rob us of our natural resources and to insult our intelligence. On the other hand, I understand and accept that some of the facts are based on unwritten oral tradition and this is equally valid.

References

I recommend the following for further reading (Google this):

(1) The Education of the Negro – Book by Dr. Carter Woodson.
(2) Forgotten: Scioto Country’s Lost Black History – Thesis by Rebecca Jenkins.
(3) Life Stories: Profiles of Black New Yorkers During Slavery and Emancipation – Research Paper by Dorothy Creole.
(4) “Black Friday”: Enforcing Ohio’s “Black Laws” in Portsmouth, Ohio: The Origins of the African-American Community of Huston Hollow by Dr. Andrew Feight.

Covid Scam Is Unraveling

 The Covid Scam is collapsing across the entire front much like the Wehrmacht after Stalingrad. Mask mandates and lockdowns are on the comeback because health authorities now admit that the Covid vaccines do not offer effective protection, especially against what are called “new variants.” What is the point of a Covid passport when the vaccine does not protect and the vaccinated have to wear masks? https://www.rt.com/usa/530394-cdc-vaccinated-masks-indoors/

Presstitute scum in the US falsely report that the “new outbreak” of Covid is among the unvaccinated young, and the push is on to vaccinate all the youth. But the facts tell a different story. In the UK, for example, new Covid cases are exploding among the fully vaccinated, rising 40 percent in one week while new covid cases among the unvaccinated are declining by 22%.

Israel is another example where the rise in Covid cases is among the vaccinated.

It is hilarious to watch vaccine defenders argue that the rise in new Covid cases among the vaccinated is proof that the vaccines work! No, I am not making this up. Here is Katelyn Jetelina: “The more vaccinated a population, the more we’ll hear of the vaccinated getting infected.”

Arieh Kovler explains: “Countries with high vaccination will see mostly vaccinated people getting ill from Covid.” https://www.deseret.com/coronavirus/2021/7/20/22584134/whats-going-on-in-israels-outbreak-among-vaccinated-people

What they mean is that as populations become vaccinated, there is no one to catch Covid but the vaccinated.

Despite the evidence, vaccine propagandists still claim 97.5% effectiveness for the vaccines. There is no evidence whatsoever for this fanciful claim. Only an ignorant moron would make such a nonsensical claim.

Although the vaccines are useless as protection, their side effects are deadly. The European Union’s database of suspected drug reaction reports covering 27 European countries, EudraVigilance, reports that as of July 17, 2021, there have been in 2021 18,928 deaths and 1,823,219 injuries associated with the Covid vaccines: https://www.globalresearch.ca/18928-dead-1-8-million-injured-50-serious-reported-in-european-unions-database-of-adverse-drug-reactions-for-covid-19-shots/5750722

The US database, VAERS, reports that as of July 9, 2021 there are 10,991 deaths and 463,457 adverse health effects associated with Covid vaccinations. A CDC whistleblower with access to the VAERS data revealed in a sworn statement under penalty of perjury that the actual number of deaths in the database is five times higher than the number released. https://www.paulcraigroberts.org/2021/07/26/how-the-covid-scam-is-perpetrated/

The British database of vaccine injuries is called the Yellow Card system. In the first four months of this year, there are 888,196 adverse vaccine events and 1,253 deaths.

Considering that the adverse vaccine reporting systems are not believed to capture more than 10% of vaccine injuries and deaths, just the US and UK alone from the beginning of the year until mid-July might have experienced 22,866,760 adverse health effects and between 299,190 and 639,280 deaths from Covid vaccines. This is an outcome worst than the claims for Covid.

The presstitutes, public health bureaucrats, and stupid politicians who have crawled out on the limb do not report these massive numbers. Their excuse is that the adverse vaccine reporting systems do not claim the adverse events are caused by the vaccines, only that they are associated with vaccination. But in all previous cases, a far smaller number of associated deaths served to pull the vaccines from use. Why not this time? Clearly, there are agendas afoot that take precedence over the normal rules and public health—profit, an increase in government power over formerly free people, and perhaps darker agendas such as the WFO’s “Great Reset” and population control. Are these possibilities the beliefs of “conspiracy theorists” or are they logical conclusions from the obvious contradictions in the official Covid narrative?

Is the pandemic real?

Both the World Health Organization and the Centers for Disease Control have admitted that the very basis for the alleged “Covid Pandemic”—the PCR test—is unreliable and cannot tell the difference between flu and Covid and between infected and non-infected. The CDC has announced that it is withdrawing its request for Emergency Use Authorization of the PCR test as of December 31, 2021. https://www.cdc.gov/csels/dls/locs/2021/07-21-2021-lab-alert-Changes_CDC_RT-PCR_SARS-CoV-2_Testing_1.html

Why is the CDC waiting four months to stop using a Covid test that immensely exaggerates the number of cases? Is the answer that as the test is run at high cycles that produce a 97% false positive rate, the CDC wants to keep the fear of massive infection hyped until all are vaccinated? As the CDC shares in Big Pharma’s spoils, as does NIH, our public health authorities have serious conflicts of interests. As we live in a world in which literally everything is corrupted by money, why should be think public health is an exception?

Mathew Crawford examined the CDC’s reworking of its warning system that is used to indicate when adverse events associated with vaccines hit a red flag level. https://roundingtheearth.substack.com/p/defining-away-vaccine-safety-signals He found that the effect of the revision was to blur the difference between safe and dangerous vaccines. In other words, the warning signal was disabled. Was this the result of incompetence or intent?

Don’t expect any investigation to be made. The entirety of the political, media, and medical establishment world is wedded to the orchestrated pandemic and efficacy of the deadly vaccine. Their credibility is at stake. They cannot afford for such a thing to be acknowledged, much less investigated.

And now we have another shameful development. Eli Lilly has developed an antibody cure for Covid, and its rollout is being blocked on the grounds that it doesn’t cure variants, which might be more alleged than real. https://www.wsj.com/articles/eli-lilly-covid-19-antibody-drug-shipments-paused-over-variant-concerns-11624652980 But as the establishment now admits, the vaccines don’t protect against the variants. Nevertheless there is a full court press to coerce universal vaccination with the dangerous vaccinations. If the same argument employed against Eli Lilly’s cure is applied to the vaccines, use of the vaccines should be immediately blocked, especially with their record of devastating side effects. Moreover, the medical establishment has provided no evidence that Eli Lilly’s cure doesn’t work with variants. It is an assertion that the presstitutes hype.

Indeed, as I keep asking, how do we know that what are called variants are not vaccine-induced illnesses? What do they call the vast reported numbers of vaccine-induced illnesses among the fully vaccinated? They don’t. They hide them under the blanket.

I suspect the real reason for blocking Eli Lilly’s cure is that the vaccine manufacturers have more clout and do not want any diminution of their vaccine market until they have exploited Covid fears to the full. Also, I suspect that the public health authorities who violated the law by allowing emergency use of the untested vaccines on the grounds that there were no cures when there were two—HCQ and Ivermectin—do not want a third cure in the picture.

The medical bureaucrat Dr. Tony Fauci, who called US Senator Rand Paul a liar for pointing out that NIH grant documents show Fauci funded research at the Wuhan laboratory in China concerned with making the coronavirus more infectious, has now admitted on TV that he did fund the research and he defends it on totally absurd grounds that his presstitute protector, Jake Tapper, studiously overlooked. https://nypost.com/2021/07/25/anthony-fauci-defends-us-funding-research-at-wuhan-lab/?utm_campaign=iphone_nyp&utm_source=mail_app The CNN moron agreed with Fauci, who has made a packet of money from the virus, that it would have been “negligent” not to fund the creation of Covid-19.

So we have “America’s leading virus expert” (what a joke!) creating a virus, then creating a pandemic around it based on fraudulent emergency use of an invalid test, then supporting nonsensical lockdowns that destroyed middle class businesses, then supported nonsensical mask mandates that provided zero protection and caused many illnesses (anything less than a N95 mask offers zero protection), then shot up a large percentages of the world’s population with a new experimental technology called a vaccine that is highly dangerous, and now is pushing mandated vaccination to the young and children who are not threatened by Covid-19. The utterly corrupt medical establishment say on one side of their filthy mouths that the Covid vaccines do not protect against the variants, therefore the vaccinated again have to wear masks, and on the other side of their filthy mouths they say in total contradiction that the young must be vaccinated with the vaccines in order to be safe.

Now, either we have a situation in which almost the entirety of the medical establishment is totally incompetent and stupid beyond all belief, or we have almost the entirety of the medical establishment involved in a gigantic scam that is murdering and injuring hundreds of thousands of people.

There is no other explanation.

The same goes for the politicians. One of the filthiest is the mass murderer of New York, Governor Andrew M. Cuomo, who sent Covid patients into nursing homes where the elderly infected by the imported Covid patients died. The Democrat Cuomo got a pass from the Democrat Biden DOJ. So much for accountability and justice. If you are a Democrat, there is no accountability. Whatever happened to the John Durham report on Russiagate? Obviously, the report is just another victim of Democrat non-accountability.

Here is the mass murderer Cuomo. Look at his crazed expression. Listen to this hysterical mass murderer declare war on the unvaccinated: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nkwb6wF2P1Q

The Republicans, including that fake one—McConnell— have joined up with the Democrats pushing the vaccines. Now that we know that the vaccines do not protect but do kill, the dumbshit Republicans want everyone vaccinated. As so many have said for so long, there is no opposition party.

Federal agencies are now mandating vaccination of their work forces: https://www.theepochtimes.com/mkt_breakingnews/first-federal-agency-to-mandate-covid-19-vaccine_3918989.html?utm_source=News&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=breaking-2021-07-26-3&mktids=22baca7c76e659bf404b407ad98afb5e&est=9B%2FSynA47SoRBDrsWy%2B%2BJs4ZudZ3GuM5s8sCo0KQSwTIjxgRyM%2FjbA%3D%3D

So are blue states: https://www.lewrockwell.com/2021/07/tyler-durden/california-nyc-require-all-public-workers-to-get-vaccinated-or-submit-to-weekly-tests/

The corrupt DOJ Biden “Justice” (sic) Department has “determined that federal law doesn’t prohibit public agencies and private businesses from requiring Covid-19 vaccines—even if the vaccines have only emergency use authorization, or so says the presstitute CNN: https://www.cnn.com/2021/07/26/politics/doj-covid-19-vaccine-requirements-olc-opinion/index.html

This is a blatant lie as was the DOJ’s “Russiagate,” and the DOJ’s “impeach gate.” The US has a “Justice” (sic) Department unconcerned with justice and incapable of telling the truth, or it has a “Justice” (sic) Department whose incompetence is unprecedented.

Here are the actual facts:

“Vaccinations are a medical intervention. All medical interventions require by law that valid consent is obtained. See, for example, the official UK National Health Service site—https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/consent-to-treatment/ —which states:

“Consent to treatment means a person must give permission before they receive any type of medical treatment, test or examination.

“This must be done on the basis of an explanation by a clinician.

“Consent from a patient is needed regardless of the procedure, whether it’s a physical examination, organ donation or something else.

“The principle of consent is an important part of medical ethics and international human rights law.

“For consent to be valid, it must be voluntary and informed, and the person consenting must have the capacity to make the decision.

“The meaning of these terms are:

“voluntary – the decision to either consent or not to consent to treatment must be made by the person, and must not be influenced by pressure from medical staff, friends or family.

“informed – the person must be given all of the information about what the treatment involves, including the benefits and risks, whether there are reasonable alternative treatments, and what will happen if treatment does not go ahead.

“capacity – the person must be capable of giving consent, which means they understand the information given to them and can use it to make an informed decision.

“If an adult has the capacity to make a voluntary and informed decision to consent to or refuse a particular treatment, their decision must be respected.

“This is still the case even if refusing treatment would result in their death, or the death of their unborn child.”

Clearly, withholding information about the potentially serious and life-threatening risks of vaccinations and mandating and coercing people to undergo medical interventions is not only immoral and unethical and undermines the patient-doctor relationship, but also violates law and should lead to criminal prosecution. But it won’t. The Democrats protect their criminals. Democrats reserve “justice” for Trump innocents who protest in defense of America’s President Trump.

The US has the same code of medical ethics. The problem is that the US medical establishment does not follow its own code. Medical ethics do not pay when you can avoid liability. If you can make money jabbing uninformed people with a death vaccine, do it. The vaccine companies have used political campaign contributions to purchase their protection from liability from the corrupt Congress of the United States. They can murder all the people they want without any liability.

As I have emphasized for decades, the American population is as gullible and trusting as Native Americans who accepted blankets infused with smallpox as gifts of good will. Americans think it is unpatriotic to distrust the government. As they think those who distrust the US government are communists or worst, it is easy for the establishment to control their minds.

Despite the failure of the vaccines to protect against infection and despite their massive adverse effects, the Oval Office moron says he is determined to force the FDA to approve the untested vaccines that are in use on fraudulent “emergency use” only basis: https://www.globalresearch.ca/politics-science-biden-admin-signals-intent-force-fda-approval-covid-vaccines/5751215 

The USA White House wants the “emergency use only” condition removed and the untested vaccines given official tested approval for use. The Oval Office idiot wants this despite the overwhelming evidence that the vaccines do not protect but do cause massive serious adverse health effects and deaths.  You can now see why the establishment stole a presidential election in order to put an idiot in office. He makes money for them and advances their secret agendas.

Tell me, is Biden a man who represents the welfare of Americans, or is this a man who represents the welfare of Big Pharma’s profits and the hidden agendas behind the orchestrated pandemic?

 Click Youtube 

Auditory Beat Stimulation and its Effects on Cognition and Mood States

Abstract

Auditory beat stimulation may be a promising new tool for the manipulation of cognitive processes and the modulation of mood states. Here, we aim to review the literature examining the most current applications of auditory beat stimulation and its targets. We give a brief overview of research on auditory steady-state responses and its relationship to auditory beat stimulation (ABS). We have summarized relevant studies investigating the neurophysiological changes related to ABS and how they impact upon the design of appropriate stimulation protocols. Focusing on binaural-beat stimulation, we then discuss the role of monaural- and binaural-beat frequencies in cognition and mood states, in addition to their efficacy in targeting disease symptoms. We aim to highlight important points concerning stimulation parameters and try to address why there are often contradictory findings with regard to the outcomes of ABS.

Keywords: auditory beat stimulation, monaural beats, binaural beats, cognition, mood states, vigilance, memory, auditory steady-state response

Introduction

Auditory beat stimulation (ABS) has long been of interest for a wide array of applications, ranging from investigating the auditory steady-state response (ASSR) and measuring audiometric parameters in the brain, to understanding mechanisms of sound localization (1). In addition to this, a few studies also suggest that ABS can be used to modulate cognition (2), to reduce anxiety levels, as well as to enhance mood states (3). Other clinical targets also include traumatic brain injury (4) and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (5). Resulting studies have reported contradictory findings as to the effects of applied monaural-beat frequencies and binaural-beat frequencies, which have somewhat hampered the progress of further investigations addressing potential effects on cognition and mood effects amongst other possible targets. Here, we review relevant studies and look to highlight the most promising directions for future approaches.

Literature Search Strategy

This review was conducted using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) criteria (6). The electronic databases PubMed and MEDLINE were searched initially using the single search terms “auditory beat stimulation, monaural beat, binaural beat, auditory steady-state response,” and then the combination of these search terms with the terms “cognition, memory, attention, mood, vigilance, anxiety, and creativity.” The strategy was not limited to human studies. In addition to the electronic search strategy, the reference lists of the manuscripts that were reviewed were examined to identify any additional articles not captured by the main search strategy. A total of 920 articles were identified in the initial search. Analysis of the papers followed the inclusion and exclusion criteria recommended by the PRISMA Guidelines. Articles that presented a combination of at least two terms from the list of search terms, “auditory beat stimulation, monaural beat, binaural beat, cognition, memory, attention, mood, vigilance, anxiety and creativity” were included. Manuscripts in English, original articles, and experimental studies were considered. Exclusion criteria were other study designs (case reports and case series), non-original studies including editorials, book reviews, and letters to the editor, and studies not specifically designed and focused on monaural and/or binaural-beat stimulation. Abstracts were screened for relevance and then full texts were assessed against inclusion criteria. After screening, a total of 30 articles were selected. During the construction of the manuscript, several other references were added, mainly referring to basic neurophysiological findings.

Auditory Beat Stimulation

The effects of ABS have been predominantly investigated using monaural and binaural beats (Figure ​(Figure1).1). The main differences between binaural and monaural beats are listed in Table ​Table1.1. Monaural and binaural beats are generated when sine waves of neighboring frequencies and with stable amplitudes are presented to either both ears simultaneously (monaural beats) or to each ear separately (binaural beats). Monaural beats are physical beats, which are objectively heard when the combination of two sine waves at neighboring frequencies (e.g., 400 and 440 Hz) are summated and presented to each ear at the same time resulting in an amplitude modulated (AM) signal. The beat corresponds to the difference between the two frequencies (in this case 40 Hz). Binaural beats are generated when the sine waves within a close range are presented to each ear separately. For example, when the 400 Hz tone is presented to the left ear and the 440 Hz tone to the right, a beat of 40 Hz is perceived, which appears subjectively to be located “inside” the head. This is the binaural beat percept. The binaural beat percept was first reported by H. W. Dove in 1839 and outlined in detail by Oster over five decades ago (7). Oster reported that the binaural beats were detected only when the carrier frequency was below 1000 Hz, a finding that confirmed an earlier study by Licklider and colleagues (8). This indicates that beat carrier frequencies have to be sufficiently low enough to be temporally encoded by the cortex (9).

Figure 1

Application of monaural and binaural beats. The superposition of amplitude modulated signals of nearby frequencies delivered either to one ear or both ears simultaneously (monaural beats), or neighbouring frequencies to each ear separately (binaural beats) ...

Table 1

Monaural and binaural-beat stimulation: main characteristics.

Neurophysiology of Auditory Beat Processing

Acoustic stimuli are heard when the peripheral components of the auditory pathway (ears, cochlea, and inner hair cells) convert pressure waves into neural action potentials via mechano-electrical transduction. This is the first order of auditory processing prior to sound waves being encoded (or rather re-encoded) by the primary auditory cortex. Auditory information is further processed at a number of subcortical structures. Auditory nerve fibers leaving the cochlea converge with the vestibulocochlear nerve and enter the cochlear nucleus (CN) in the brainstem and bifurcate. As the nerve fibers branch they form synapses with different subtypes of neurons – spherical bushy cells, globular bushy cells, and stellate cells, each of which differ in their temporal and spectral response properties (10). Information is then relayed to either the inferior colliculus (IC) via outputs from the stellate and dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN) cells, or by an indirect route to the superior olivary complex (SOC). Bushy cells of the anteroventral cochlear nucleus (AVCN) project outputs via this route (11). The SOC processes convergent information from the left and right ears and cues related to sound localization (12). The left and right IC has a commissural connection, which allows for binaural interactions within the ascending pathway, and is comprised of numerous subnuclei, the largest of which is the central nucleus (ICC) (13, 14). Here, the temporal integration window between the IC and the auditory cortex enables processing of monaural characteristics such as amplitude modulation (15). From here, outputs travel to the medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) of the thalamus, where thalamic output fibers connect to the auditory cortex located in the temporal lobes (13, 14).

The neurophysiological processing of binaural and monaural beats differs slightly. Draganova and colleagues underlined these differences by referring to monaural beats as “peripheral” – as they interacted at the cochlear level, and binaural beats as “central,” i.e., the binaural beat percept being the result of the effect of a central interaction which mostly likely occurs in the superior olivary nuclei (16). Monaural beats are heard when a composite auditory stimulus is presented to both ears simultaneously, which is detected by the cochlear and relayed to the brain stem and auditory cortex. Binaural beats, however, are only subjectively perceived when two sine waves of nearby frequencies are delivered to each ear separately. Brainstem neurons in the SOC, which are sensitive to phase shifts between both ears, fire action potentials at a rate corresponding to the phase difference between both ears and generate the binaural-beat percept. Thus the binaural-beat percept is caused by the major neural mechanism which enables sound localization (1).

The Auditory Steady-State Response

The ASSR is a composite auditory evoked potential which can be elicited using repetitive acoustic stimuli which continually persist over a time period. The ASSR follows the envelope of a complex stimulus, and it has been suggested that the steady-state response drives the background activity of the EEG (17). Regan defines the steady-state response as “an evoked potential whose constituent discrete frequency components remain constant in amplitude and phase over an extended time period” (18). In a seminal study, Galambos and colleagues recorded click-related potentials (ERPs) with latencies between 8 and 80 ms post stimulus onset extracted from the EEG recorded from electrodes placed at the forehead and ear. These ERPs are termed the middle latency (MLR) responses, and can be acquired after the earlier brainstem responses. It was observed that the ERP was most evident when the clicks were delivered at a rate of 40/s, a response that they subsequently named the 40 Hz ERP [which is a composite of the several transient waves comprising the MLR (19)]. As the steady-state response consists of the superposition of the subcomponents of the MLR, studies have sought to predict the steady-state response from its transients (20). However, the prediction of the steady-state response from the superposition of its transient waveforms is not always accurate, and therefore provides evidence of oscillatory entrainment (17). Since this early study, many more have investigated ASSRs with the aim of examining their role in attentional processes (21–23) and possible clinical applications (24, 25). In a study examining the effect of selective attention on the 40 Hz transient response, Tiitinen et al. (21) demonstrated that the 40 Hz transient response was larger over frontal and central areas when participants were told to pay attention to tone stimuli, than when they were instructed to ignore them. This demonstrated that the transient 40 Hz response is enhanced under active attention. In a later study, Ross and colleagues (22) showed that the ASSR was also enhanced under conditions of active attention. Participants performed a modulatory discrimination task in which they had to indicate when the standard stimuli presented (40 Hz AM tones) changed in modulation frequency (to 30 Hz, the target stimuli). Auditory stimuli were delivered monaurally to the right ear. Magnetoencephalography (MEG) recordings showed that the ASSR was enhanced during auditory attention, and was more pronounced in the left hemisphere contralateral to stimulation (22). Another study reported different ASSR patterns to attended versus unattended AM tones (20 and 45 Hz) delivered to the left and right ear simultaneously (26). The authors reported an attention-dependent modulation of the ASSR patterns only for the 20 Hz stimulation, but not for the 45 Hz stimulation. Together, these findings indicate that directed attention has an impact on ASSR amplitudes, but that these effects likely dependent on modulation frequency.

Auditory Steady-State Responses to Monaural and Binaural Beats

Beat stimulation has been used to examine the source and origin of the ASSR, an often controversial debate due to contradictory findings (27, 28). More recent studies have sought to clarify this issue. For example, the 40 Hz ERP has been used to investigate the cortical sources of the ASSR, as well as the characteristics and effects of monaural and binaural-beat stimulation frequencies. Ross and colleagues recorded ASSRs to AM tones with modulation frequencies of ~40 Hz using MEG. They reported that ASSR amplitudes decreased with increasing carrier frequencies, with the ASSR amplitude at 250 Hz to be a magnitude of three times larger than at 4000 Hz. Importantly, they observed that when beats at 39 and 41 Hz are simultaneously presented both beats can be perceived at the same time (29).

To probe the cortical representation of binaural-beat frequencies, Karino et al. applied modulation frequencies of 4.00–6.66 Hz while recording magnetic fields using MEG. The authors reported that the binaural beat ASSR arose from the superior temporal, posterior parietal, and frontal cortices, in addition to the auditory cortex (30). Another study applied a similar technique to that of Pantev et al. (31), by comparing a transient of the MLR–N1m to ASSR responses to monaural and binaural-beat stimuli, recorded using MEG (16). Their findings showed that ASSR to both monaural- and binaural-beat stimuli are located anterior and medially to Heschl’s gyri within the Sylvian fissure, and when compared with the N1m source, place the ASSR generating network within the primary auditory cortex, which is also in line with other studies (29, 32). The authors also observed that the magnetic field amplitudes of the ASSR elicited by monaural beats were ~5 greater than those of the ASSR to binaural beats (16). A recent study has also reported similar findings concerning the magnitude of responses to monaural and binaural beats, and that stimulation conditions were reflected in interhemispheric phase differences (33). Schwartz and Taylor also reported a lesser ASSR amplitude response to binaural-beat stimuli compared to monaural beats. A 40 Hz binaural beat ASSR was evoked with a carrier frequency at 400 Hz but was undetectable above 3000 Hz. This was not the case for the monaural beat stimulation frequencies, which could be detected above 3000 Hz (9).

Two studies by Pratt and colleagues have examined cortical evoked potentials first to binaural-beat frequencies, and then a following study reported responses to monaural beats. The first study aimed to explore ERP responses to binaural beats of 3 and 6 Hz using two different carrier frequencies of 250 and 1000 Hz. Similar to other studies (29), the authors reported that beat-evoked responses were higher in amplitude to beats with a low carrier frequency (250 Hz) and also to the lower beat frequency itself (3 Hz). In the second study, Pratt et al. (34) recorded beat-evoked ERPs again, this time to both monaural and binaural beats at the same frequencies (3 and 6 Hz), as well as at the same base carrier frequencies (250 and 1000 Hz), but using different onset phases, i.e., by applying monaural beats that differed in phase by a quarter of the beat period. The amplitudes of the beat-evoked oscillations were higher in response to monaural beats and also to the lower carrier and beat frequencies (250 and 3 Hz). The sources of the beat-evoked responses both to the monaural and binaural-beat stimuli originated in the temporal lobe regions and were lateralized to the left hemisphere, regardless of the difference in phase-onset between the stimuli. These findings suggest that the processing of binaural and monaural beats occurs in the same cortical regions regardless of the onset phase (34).

In a study aiming to map the origin of the ASSR, Pastor and colleagues applied a train of monaural stimuli at 12 different stimulation rates. Using positron emission tomography [(PET)-H215O] and EEG data, the authors reported an increase in regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) together with oscillatory responses peaking at 40 Hz. These findings indicate that the ASSR is related to an increase in overall synaptic activity in the auditory cortex at this frequency, and is not just due the superposition of MLRs (35). Interestingly, an earlier study by Pantev et al. compared the transients of the MLR and the 40 Hz SSR, and found that the two evoked responses originate from different sources in the auditory cortex, which were tonotopically segregated with regard to carrier frequencies (31).

Altogether, these findings suggest that binaural and monaural beats are processed in the same cortical areas, and that the beat-generated ASSR is related to changes in synaptic activity in the auditory cortex as well as to the superposition of MLR transients, also originating in the primary auditory cortex.

Frequency-Specific EEG Changes Due to Beat Stimulation

Studies reporting significant effects after application of binaural beats using continuous EEG have shown changes in only certain frequency bands, these include gamma (9, 35) and alpha (36). A recent study seeking to investigate these effects in the alpha and beta ranges has reported no significant changes. Vernon and colleagues applied binaural beats in the alpha (10 Hz) and beta (20 Hz) frequency ranges for 1 min duration over ten trials to evaluate whether a frequency following response (FFR) could be elicited to these frequencies in two separate participant groups. Each trial was interleaved with exposure to a pure tone played at 400 Hz while EEG was recorded from the left and right temporal regions. The authors observed a slight decrease in resting baseline amplitudes for both beat frequencies, from the pre- to post-entrainment and during the experimental session, and participants exhibited reduced alpha activity during the binaural beat on-phase compared to the off-phase (36). In a similar study, Gao et al. (37) investigated the effects of binaural beats applied for a 5 min duration at 1, 5, 10, and 20 Hz. To detect EEG changes due to binaural beats, they analyzed relative power (RP), phase locking values (PLVs), and cross-mutual information (CMI). Relative power in the theta and alpha bands increased during delta and alpha binaural-beat frequency stimulation while it decreased in the beta band. During alpha and delta binaural-beat stimulation, reduction in CMI was detected among right temporal, frontal, and occipital areas 3.5 min after stimulation onset. However, during beta-beat stimulation, an increase and subsequent decrease in CMI was observed – this occurred between the left temporal and frontal areas (increase), and between right temporal and centro-parietal areas (decrease), and in the case of theta beat stimulation, an increase over left temporal and central cortical areas was observed. These data suggest that application of binaural beats in theta, alpha, delta, and beta frequencies is able to alter functional connectivity between brain regions (37).

Another study looking at the effect of putatively inhibitory and facilitatory binaural-beat frequencies (15 and 7 Hz, respectively) on meditation practice, reported significant entrainment effects (38). Application of binaural beats at a theta frequency (7 Hz) increased left temporal lobe delta power in experienced meditators, whereas this effect was not recorded in the novice participant group. When the beta beat frequency was applied novice participants showed more gamma power increase during meditation than the experienced mediator group (38). These results indicate that the effects of binaural beats depend upon prior experience and individual skills.

ABS and Phase Synchronization

A study investigating binaural and monaural beat ASSRs compared the phases of the 40 Hz sinusoids derived from EEG recordings at various electrode locations (9). The authors observed a fronto-occipital phase shift in both the binaural and monaural beat ASSRs, of ~3–7 msec. These phase shifts indicate that the monaural and binaural beat ASSRs are generated by more than one neuronal network at different locations. The authors suggest that either the rostro-caudal phase shift of gamma oscillations may demonstrate a sequential recruitment of relevant cortical regions, similar to findings from a study looking at thalamocortical oscillations (39), or that the data could have been generated by more than one source with different orientations (9). Bilateral phase differences could be detected for the binaural beat, while monaural beats evoked responses of equal phase in both left and right hemispheres (33). The phase delays reported by Ross et al. and Schwarz and Taylor (9) may also reflect alterations in phase synchronization. Phase synchronization occurs when oscillations in two brain regions have a constant phase relation over some time period. Phase synchronization is integral to cognition as it supports the processes of neural communication, neuroplasticity and memory formation (40). If auditory beats do indeed induce phase synchronization, this may indicate a role for monaural and binaural beats in modulating memory processes. Recent findings based on intracranial EEG recordings in humans suggest that auditory beats are able to specifically alter not only EEG power, but also phase synchronization. For instance, an increased temporo-lateral phase synchronization was observed due to 5 Hz binaural-beat stimulation, while a decreased mediotemporal synchronization was detected during 5 Hz monaural beats (41).

Studies Examining the Effects of ABS

The application of ABS to manipulate cognitive processes or for the modulation of mood or pain responses has been investigated, but has yielded contradictory results, especially with regard to binaural beats. Studies that reported statistically significant effects state that they are often weak and short-lived, and in addition, there is very little discussion as to which mechanisms are involved in the generation of these effects. This may be in part due to the nature of the stimuli itself, i.e., the binaural beat being a weak percept, and that most studies did not employ the use of measurement techniques like EEG or MEG to quantify resulting electrophysiological effects. Another possible reason for the reported inconsistencies may be due to the incomparability of the methodological approaches.

Cognitive Effects of ABS

Memory

Two studies applying binaural-beat stimulation at the theta frequency reported opposite effects on memory (2, 42). Wahbeh and colleagues tested verbal memory performance using the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test. Participants are asked to repeat a list of 15 unrelated words over several different trials. The test reflects both working and long-term memory processes (43). They reported that binaural-beat stimulation at 7 Hz, for a single 30-min session, resulted in decrease in immediate verbal memory recall in the experimental condition compared to control condition (42). In contrast, application of 5 Hz binaural-beat stimulation for 15 min, twice per day for 15 days, resulted in a significant increase in the number of words recalled post-stimulation, as measured using the Wechsler III Memory Scale, when compared to the other stimulation conditions (13 Hz binaural beats and a white noise control condition) (2). The Wechsler II Memory Scale assesses different working and long-term memory functions using a battery of tests. In this study, immediate recall of word lists was assessed (44). These results may suggest that prolonged exposure to ABS may affect verbal memory recall.

Creativity

Creativity has been suggested to be related to divergent thinking, as opposed to convergent thinking. Divergent thinking refers to the generation of multiple answers to a given problem, while convergent thinking means aiming for a single, correct solution to a problem (45). A recent study reported positive effects of binaural beats applied at the alpha (10 Hz) and gamma (40 Hz) ranges on creativity. Creativity was assessed using the divergent thinking [Alternate Uses Task (AUT)] and convergent thinking [Remote Associations Task (RAT)] tasks, which were correlated with the spontaneous Eye Blink Rate (EBR), a marker of dopamine levels in the brain. The divergent thinking task (AUT) involved participants being asked to name as many uses for certain household objects as they possibly could. The task assesses four components: originality, fluency, flexibility, and elaboration. In the convergent thinking task (RAT), participants were required to name a single compound word which matched three seemingly unrelated words. In addition to these tasks, participants were also required to fill out a Positive and Negative Affect Scale questionnaire. Beat stimuli were applied for 3 min prior to the tasks. The results of this study indicated that binaural beats at both frequencies affected performance in the divergent, but not convergent thinking tasks. Authors noted that participants with a low EBR benefited from alpha binaural-beat stimulation, whereas those with high EBRs were either unaffected or impaired by alpha and gamma binaural-beat stimulation. In this study, background white noise was also added to each stimulus in order to amplify the binaural-beat percept (46).

Attention

In a pilot study, Kennel et al. investigated the potential use of binaural-beat stimulation to reduce the symptom of inattention in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (5). ADHD is a developmental neuropsychiatric disorder diagnosed in children and adolescents. Individuals affected by ADHD exhibit the core symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity in varying degrees of severity (47). Participants were either required to listen to commercial recordings of binaural beats embedded in natural sounds or a sham recording containing pink noise for 20 min, three times a week for 3 week duration. The Test of Variables of Attention (TOVA) and the Children’s Color Trails Test 1 and 2 (CCTT1 and 2) were performed to measure changes in attention over time and course of treatment. For this study the binaural-beat stimulation did not have a significant impact on attention, but participants reported subjectively experiencing less problems associated with inattention during the study period (5). Unfortunately, one of the main limitations of this study was that the beat stimulation parameters of the audio program administered were not reported.

Anxiety, Mood States and Vigilance as Targets of ABS

Anxiety

Two types of anxiety can be differentiated. State anxiety is a temporary increase in anxiety levels related to an event or situation. Trait anxiety, however, is a continually heightened level of anxiety which is a personal characteristic (48). In an interesting study, Padmanabhan and colleagues applied binaural-beat stimulation to patients suffering from pre-operative anxiety (3). Patients were assessed using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STA-I) questionnaire, and beat stimuli were administered via a compact disk player with either binaural beats or a sham-like audio recording. The recordings contained binaural beat recordings within a delta frequency range. The authors reported a 26.3% decline in anxiety scores in the post-stimulation STA-I assessment for the binaural beat audio group when compared to a 11.1% decline in the placebo audio group (3). A similar approach was taken by Weiland et al. who used sound compositions of either natural settings, or with an embedded binaural-beat frequency of 10 Hz (49). The intervention was applied for 20 min and patients were requested to complete the STA-I in order to assess anxiety scores. They reported significant decreases in anxiety scores post-intervention in those patients who received the binaural-beat stimulation compared to the patient group who did not (49). Le Scouarnec et al. used a commercial binaural-beat recording for a pilot study examining levels of anxiety (50). Participants with mild anxiety disorders were asked to listen to a recording of binaural beat stimuli in the delta/theta range, daily for 30 min for a total of 1 month while detailing their anxiety ratings before and post-treatment using STAI-I scores. The authors reported that patients recorded a reduction in anxiety ratings and an increase in the number of times the patients chose to listen to the recordings (50). In a later study, it was also reported that patients who received binaural-beat stimulation in the delta frequency for 30 min daily over 60 days showed a significant decrease in trait anxiety scores assessed with the STA-I (51).

Mood States

Mood is a temporary, conscious state of mind or predominant feeling (52). Mood states are often dependent upon external factors. Several studies have sought to modulate mood states by binaural-beat stimulation. Two studies by Wahbeh and colleagues looked at the effect of binaural beats at theta (7 Hz) and delta (0–4 Hz) frequencies on mood states (42, 51). Binaural beats were presented either daily over 60 days (at delta frequency) or once for 30 min (at theta frequency). Changes in mood states were assessed using the Profile of Mood States (POMS) questionnaire, given before and after stimulation. The POMS is a 65-item self-report questionnaire that contains total mood score and six subscales: Tension–Anxiety, Depression–Dejection, Fatigue–Inertia, Anger–Hostility, Vigor–Activity, and Confusion–Bewilderment (53). They reported a decrease in total mood disturbance, as well as a decrease in tension, anxiety, confusion, and fatigue subscales after delta beat stimulation compared the control condition. However, there was an increase in the depression and vigor subscales (51). In the second study, after 30 min of theta binaural-beat stimulation there was an increase of the POMS depression subscale in the experimental condition relative to the control condition (42). In a similar study, Lane et al. (54) reported decreases in POMS depression subscales after binaural-beat stimulation in the beta range (16 and 24 Hz), compared to presentation of beats in the theta/delta range (1.5 and 4 Hz). The authors suggested that perception of beta frequency beats is associated with less negative mood (54).

Vigilance

Vigilance is the ability to maintain focus of attention and to remain alert to stimuli over prolonged periods of time (55). Vigilance tasks typically comprise of monotonic sensory processing requiring continuous attention. A recent study aimed to explore the impact of binaural beats on vigilance and personality traits assessed according to the Five Factor Model (FFM) (56). The FFM of personality identifies five traits: Neuroticism (N), Extraversion (E), Openness to experience (O), Agreeableness (A), and Contentiousness (C). A previous study had identified a correlation between O and C personality traits and cortical entrainment in the theta and beta bands using photic driving (57). Binaural-beat stimuli were applied at theta (7 Hz) and beta (16 Hz) frequencies while participants performed a vigilance task, in which they were required to respond to the presentation of a target stimulus (a number or letter), presented on a computer screen out of a list of serially presented stimuli, with a button press. EEG was recorded throughout the experiment and binaural beats were applied for a total of 4 min during the execution of the task. A baseline of white noise was played in between each stimulation epoch. The authors hypothesized that beats within the beta range would sustain or increase levels of vigilance (indicated by a reduction in response time during the vigilance task), based on earlier studies (54). In line with previous findings (57), they also suggested that O and C personality traits would be more susceptible to entrainment in the theta and beta beat frequency ranges, and that individuals who scored higher in trait category A would demonstrate higher beta power in the left temporal and central cortical regions (58). The authors reported no significant effects of the stimulation frequencies, either on vigilance or any interaction with personality. They suggested the short duration exposure to the binaural-beat stimuli was insufficient to alter vigilance or entrain cortical frequencies.

However, another investigation also examining the effects of binaural beats on vigilance and mood, reported significant effects. Lane et al. applied binaural beats at beta (16 and 24 Hz) and theta/delta (1.5 and 4 Hz) ranges for 30 min throughout a psychomotor vigilance task. The authors reported that beats in the beta range were associated with a less negative mood (see above) and improved performance in a vigilance task. However, the beat stimuli presented in this study contained a background of pink noise and had lower carrier tones to that of the previous study reporting negative effects of binaural-beat frequencies on vigilance (54). It may be that the choice of carrier tone impacts upon the efficacy of beat stimulation, as it was reported that lower carrier tones as well as beat frequencies produce more robust effects (34). The addition of a pink or white noise background may also have had an effect upon the processing of the beat percept (46). These differences, along with the length of the stimulation duration may account for the discrepancies seen in the outcomes of these similar studies.

Conclusion

This review has aimed to give a brief overview of ABS and its role in cognition and potential use as a therapeutic tool for modulating mood states. While findings for most putative applications up to now are either solitary or contradictory, several studies consistently report a diminishing impact of binaural-beat stimulation on anxiety levels. The underlying neural mechanisms are still yet to be unraveled. Understanding how and where the binaural-beat percept is generated and which cortical networks are most affected will aid in the optimization of both monaural and binaural-beat stimulation as a tool to modulate cognitive and mode states. Many studies employing ABS as either a mechanistic tool or potential therapeutic aid, report contrasting findings. Further research, including more accurate reporting of experimental protocols, especially those studies undertaken in a clinical setting, will help to clarify the most promising effects. In a recent study, Ross and colleagues reported that inconsistencies relating to monaural and binaural beats at low frequencies, as well as at the 40 Hz frequency, could possibly be attributed to earlier investigations suggesting that they share common neural mechanisms (33). Many factors may impact upon the efficacy of beat stimulation, including the duration of the applied stimulus. Carrier frequencies may also play a role, as well as the addition of background white or pink noise, which may amplify the beat percept (46).

A study examining the effects of aging showed that regardless of age, a binaural-beat percept in the gamma range could be detected, but with less accuracy by older individuals (59). Some investigations also reported gender differences concerning binaural-beat perception (7) and alterations in auditory perception during the menstrual cycle (60). Other studies suggest that attending to the stimulus may play role (9). As many factors impact upon the efficacy of monaural and binaural-beat stimulation, a more in-depth reporting of beat stimulation parameters and protocols would offer the possibility to limit the methodological inconsistencies that may explain many of the contradictory outcomes reported in the literature. Most importantly, electrophysiological investigations comparing the effects of auditory beats under different stimulation conditions and parameters are still rare. Such studies are necessary as a fundament to allow the development of mechanistic hypotheses explaining the behavioral outcomes of beat stimulation.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Dr. Hui Zhang for her helpful comments and constructive criticism of the manuscript. The work of LC and JF is supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (FE 366/6-1 and SFB1089).

Article information

Front Psychiatry. 2015; 6: 70.

Published online 2015 May 12. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00070

PMCID: PMC4428073

PMID: 26029120

Leila Chaieb,1,* Elke Caroline Wilpert,1 Thomas P. Reber,1 and Juergen Fell1

1Department of Epileptology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany

Edited by: Alkomiet Hasan, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Germany

Reviewed by: Felipe Ortuño, Clínica Universidad de Navarra, Spain; Joseph Kambeitz, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Germany

*Correspondence: Leila Chaieb, Department of Epileptology, University of Bonn, Sigmund-Freud Str. 25, Bonn D-53105, Germany, ed.nnob-bku.inu@beiahc.aliel

Specialty section: This article was submitted to Neuropsychiatric Imaging and Stimulation, a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychiatry

Received 2015 Feb 2; Accepted 2015 Apr 27.

Copyright © 2015 Chaieb, Wilpert, Reber and Fell.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

This article has been cited by other articles in PMC.

Articles from Frontiers in Psychiatry are provided here courtesy of Frontiers Media SA

References

1. Kuwada S, Yin TC, Wickesberg RE. Response of cat inferior colliculus neurons to binaural beat stimuli: possible mechanisms for sound localization. Science (1979) 206(4418):586–8.10.1126/science.493964 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

2. Ortiz T, Martínez AM, Fernández A, Maestu F, Campo P, Hornero R, et al. Impact of auditory stimulation at a frequency of 5 Hz in verbal memory. Actas Esp Psiquiatr (2008) 36(6):307–13. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

3. Padmanabhan R, Hildreth AJ, Laws D. A prospective, randomised, controlled study examining binaural beat audio and pre-operative anxiety in patients undergoing general anaesthesia for day case surgery. Anaesthesia (2005) 60(9):874–7.10.1111/j.1365-2044.2005.04287.x [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

4. Signe Klepp OT. Effects of binaural-beat stimulation on recovery following traumatic brain injury. Subtle Energies Energy Med (2006) 17:2. [Google Scholar]

5. Kennel S, Taylor AG, Lyon D, Bourguignon C. Pilot feasibility study of binaural auditory beats for reducing symptoms of inattention in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Pediatr Nurs (2010) 25(1):3–11.10.1016/j.pedn.2008.06.010 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

6. Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, The PRISMA Group Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS Med (2009) 6(7):e1000097.10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

7. Oster G. Auditory beats in the brain. Sci Am (1973) 229(4):94–10210.1038/scientificamerican1073-94 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

8. Licklider JCR, Webster JC, Hedlun JM. On the frequency limits of binaural beats. J Acoust Soc Am (1950) 22(4):468–7310.1121/1.1906629 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

9. Schwarz DWF, Taylor P. Human auditory steady state responses to binaural and monaural beats. Neurophysiol Clin (2005) 116(3):658–68.10.1016/j.clinph.2004.09.014 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

10. Wu SH, Oertel D. Intracellular injection with horseradish peroxidase of physiologically characterized stellate and bushy cells in slices of mouse anteroventral cochlear nucleus. J Neurosci (1984) 4(6):1577–88. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

11. Goldberg JM, Brownell WE. Discharge characteristics of neurons in anteroventral and dorsal cochlear nuclei of cat. Brain Res (1973) 64:35–5410.1016/0006-8993(73)90169-8 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

12. Moore BCJ. An Introduction to the Psychology of Hearing. San Diego, CA: Academic Press Inc; (1997). [Google Scholar]

13. Squire LR, Bloom FE, Spitzer NC. Fundamental Neuroscience. 4 ed Amsterdam; Boston, MA: Academic Press; (2008). [Google Scholar]

14. Schnupp J, Nelken I, King A. Auditory Neuroscience: Making Sense of Sound. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; (2012). [Google Scholar]

15. Fitzpatrick DC, Roberts JM, Kuwada S, Kim DO, Filipovic B. Processing temporal modulations in binaural and monaural auditory stimuli by neurons in the inferior colliculus and auditory cortex. J Assoc Res Otolaryngol (2009) 10(4):579–93.10.1007/s10162-009-0177-8 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

16. Draganova R, Ross B, Wollbrink A, Pantev C. Cortical steady-state responses to central and peripheral auditory beats. Cereb Cortex (2008) 18(5):1193–200.10.1093/cercor/bhm153 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

17. Picton TW, John MS, Dimitrijevic A, Purcell D. Human auditory steady-state responses. Int J Audiol (2003) 42(4):177–21910.3109/14992020309101316 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

18. Regan D. Human brain electrophysiology. In: Regan D, editor. Evoked Potentials and Evoked Magnetic Fields in Science and Medicine. New York, NY: Elsevier; (1989). 672 p. [Google Scholar]

19. Galambos R, Makeig S, Talmachoff PJ. A 40-Hz auditory potential recorded from the human scalp. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A (1981) 78(4):2643–710.1073/pnas.78.4.2643 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

20. Santarelli R, Conti G. Generation of auditory steady-state responses: linearity assessment. Scand Audiol Suppl (1999) 51:23–32. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

21. Tiitinen H, Sinkkonen J, Reinikainen K, Alho K, Lavikainen J, Näätänen R. Selective attention enhances the auditory 40-Hz transient response in humans. Nature (1993) 364(6432):59–60.10.1038/364059a0 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

22. Ross B, Picton TW, Herdman AT, Pantev C. The effect of attention on the auditory steady-state response. Neurol Clin Neurophysiol (2004) 2004:22. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

23. Weisz N, Lecaignard F, Müller N, Bertrand O. The modulatory influence of a predictive cue on the auditory steady-state response. Hum Brain Mapp (2012) 33(6):1417–30.10.1002/hbm.21294 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

24. Rass O, Krishnan G, Brenner CA, Hetrick WP, Merrill CC, Shekhar A, et al. Auditory steady state response in bipolar disorder: relation to clinical state, cognitive performance, medication status, and substance disorders. Bipolar Disord (2010) 12(8):793–803.10.1111/j.1399-5618.2010.00871.x [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

25. Rass O, Forsyth JK, Krishnan GP, Hetrick WP, Klaunig MJ, Breier A, et al. Auditory steady state response in the schizophrenia, first-degree relatives, and schizotypal personality disorder. Schizophr Res (2012) 136(1–3):143–9.10.1016/j.schres.2012.01.003 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

26. Müller N, Schlee W, Hartmann T, Lorenz I, Weisz N. Top-down modulation of the auditory steady-state response in a task-switch paradigm. Front Hum Neurosci (2009) 3:1.10.3389/neuro.09.001.2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

27. Basar E, Rosen B, Basar-Eroglu C, Greitschus F. The associations between 40 Hz-EEG and the middle latency response of the auditory evoked potential. Int J Neurosci (1987) 33(1–2):103–17.10.3109/00207458708985933 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

28. Gutschalk A, Mase R, Roth R, Ille N, Rupp A, Hähnel S, et al. Deconvolution of 40 Hz steady-state fields reveals two overlapping source activities of the human auditory cortex. Neurophysiol Clin (1999) 110(5):856–68.10.1016/S1388-2457(99)00019-X [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

29. Ross B, Draganova R, Picton TW, Pantev C. Frequency specificity of 40-Hz auditory steady-state responses. Hear Res (2003) 186(1–2):57–68.10.1016/S0378-5955(03)00299-5 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

30. Karino S, Yumoto M, Itoh K, Uno A, Yamakawa K, Sekimoto S, et al. Neuromagnetic responses to binaural beat in human cerebral cortex. J Neurophysiol (2006) 96(4):1927–38.10.1152/jn.00859.2005 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

31. Pantev C, Roberts LE, Elbert T, Ross B, Wienbruch C. Tonotopic organization of the sources of human auditory steady-state responses. Hear Res (1996) 101(1–2):62–74.10.1016/S0378-5955(96)00133-5 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

32. Draganova R, Ross B, Borgmann C, Pantev C. Auditory cortical response patterns to multiple rhythms of AM sound. Ear Hear (2002) 23(3):254–65.10.1097/00003446-200206000-00009 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

33. Ross B, Miyazaki T, Thompson J, Jamali S, Fujioka T. Human cortical responses to slow and fast binaural beats reveal multiple mechanisms of binaural hearing. J Neurophysiol (2014) 112(8):1871–84.10.1152/jn.00224.2014 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

34. Pratt H, Starr A, Michalewski HJ, Dimitrijevic A, Bleich N, Mittelman N. A comparison of auditory evoked potentials to acoustic beats and to binaural beats. Hear Res (2010) 262(1–2):34–44.10.1016/j.heares.2010.01.013 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

35. Pastor MA, Artieda J, Arbizu J, Marti-Climent JM, Peñuelas I, Masdeu JC. Activation of human cerebral and cerebellar cortex by auditory stimulation at 40 Hz. J Neurosci (2002) 22(23):10501–6. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

36. Vernon D, Peryer G, Louch J, Shaw M. Tracking EEG changes in response to alpha and beta binaural beats. Int J Psychophysiol (2012) 93(1):134–9.10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2012.10.008 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

37. Gao X, Cao H, Ming D, Qi H, Wang X, Wang X, et al. Analysis of EEG activity in response to binaural beats with different frequencies. Int J Psychophysiol (2014) 94(3):399–406.10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2014.10.010 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

38. Lavallee CF, Koren SA, Persinger MA. A quantitative electroencephalographic study of meditation and binaural beat entrainment. J Altern Complement Med (2011) 17(4):351–5.10.1089/acm.2009.0691 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

39. Ribary U, Ioannides AA, Singh KD, Hasson R, Bolton JP, Lado F, et al. Magnetic field tomography of coherent thalamocortical 40-Hz oscillations in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A (1991) 88(24):11037–41.10.1073/pnas.88.24.11037 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

40. Fell J, Axmacher N. The role of phase synchronization in memory processes. Nat Rev Neurosci (2011) 12(2):105–18.10.1038/nrn2979 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

41. Becher A-K, Höhne M, Axmacher N, Chaieb L, Elger CE, Fell J. Intracranial electroencephalography power and phase synchronization changes during monaural and binaural beat stimulation. Eur J Neurosci (2014) 41(2):254–63.10.1111/ejn.12760 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

42. Wahbeh H, Calabrese C, Zwickey H, Zajdel D. Binaural beat technology in humans: a pilot study to assess neuropsychologic, physiologic, and electroencephalographic effects. J Altern Complement Med (2007) 13(2):199–206.10.1089/acm.2006.6196 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

43. Rey A. ‘L’examen psychologique dans les cas d’encéphalopathie traumatique. (Les problems.). [The psychological examination in cases of traumatic encepholopathy. Problems.]’. Archives de Psychologie (1941) 28:215–85. [Google Scholar]

44. Wechsler D. Wechsler Memory Scale. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation; (1945). [Google Scholar]

45. Guilford JP. The Nature of Human Intelligence. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; (1967). [Google Scholar]

46. Reedijk SA, Bolders A, Hommel B. The impact of binaural beats on creativity. Front Hum Neurosci (2013) 7:786.10.3389/fnhum.2013.00786 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

47. Barkley RA. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Handbook for Diagnosis and Treatment. Third ed New York, NY: The Guilford Press; (2005). [Google Scholar]

48. Emmelkamp P, Ehring T. The Wiley Handbook of Anxiety Disorders. (2014). Available from: http://eu.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-111877535X.html

49. Weiland TJ, Jelinek GA, Macarow KE, Samartzis P, Brown DM, Grierson EM, et al. Original sound compositions reduce anxiety in emergency department patients: a randomised controlled trial. Med J Aust (2011) 195(11–12):694–8.10.5694/mja10.10662 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

50. Le Scouarnec RP, Poirier RM, Owens JE, Gauthier J, Taylor AG, Foresman PA. Use of binaural beat tapes for treatment of anxiety: a pilot study of tape preference and outcomes. Altern Ther Health Med (2001) 7(1):58–63. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

51. Wahbeh H, Calabrese C, Zwickey H. Binaural beat technology in humans: a pilot study to assess psychologic and physiologic effects. J Altern Complement Med (2007) 13(1):25–32.10.1089/acm.2006.6196 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

52. Lewis M, Haviland-Jones JM, Barrett LF. Handbook of Emotions. 0003 ed New York, NY: Guilford Pubn; (2008). [Google Scholar]

53. McNair DM, Heuchert JP. Profile of Mood States, 2nd EditionTM (POMS 2TM), JvR Psychometrics Assessment Catalogue. (2011). Available from: http://catalogue.jvrpsychometrics.co.za/profile-of-mood-states/

54. Lane JD, Kasian SJ, Owens JE, Marsh GR. Binaural auditory beats affect vigilance performance and mood. Physiol Behav (1998) 63(2):249–52.10.1016/S0031-9384(97)00436-8 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

55. Warm JS, Parasuraman R, Matthews G. Vigilance requires hard mental work and is stressful. Hum Factors (2008) 50(3):433–41.10.1518/001872008X312152 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

56. McCrae RR, John OP. An introduction to the five-factor model and its applications. J Pers (1992) 60(2):175–215.10.1111/j.1467-6494.1992.tb00970.x [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

57. Stough C, Donaldson C, Scarlata B, Ciorciari J. Psychophysiological correlates of the NEO PI-R openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness: preliminary results. Int J Psychophysiol (2001) 41(1):87–91.10.1016/S0167-8760(00)00176-8 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

58. Goodin P, Ciorciari J, Baker K, Carey A-M, Carrey A-M, Harper M, et al. A high-density EEG investigation into steady state binaural beat stimulation. PLoS One (2012) 7(4):e34789.10.1371/journal.pone.0034789 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

59. Grose JH, Mamo SK. Electrophysiological measurement of binaural beats: effects of primary tone frequency and observer age. Ear Hear (2012) 33(2):187–94.10.1097/AUD.0b013e318230bbbd [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

60. Haggard M, Gaston JB. Changes in auditory perception in the menstrual cycle. Br J Audiol (1978) 12(4):105–18.10.3109/03005367809078862 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]