Saturday, March 1, 2025

9.1: Recognizing Inconsistency and Contradiction

🇨🇳 9.1:认识不一致和矛盾 Rèn shì bùyīzhì hé máodùn

🇫🇷 9.1 : Reconnaître l'incohérence et la contradiction

🇩🇪 9.1: Inkonsistenz und Widerspruch erkennen


The topic of inconsistency is at the heart of logic. If you say, "Everyone left the room," and I say, "She is someone who is still in the room," then I've said something inconsistent with what you've said. Noticing an inconsistency is a wake-up call to resolve the conflict. One or both of the conflicting claims must fail to be true.


Because the study of inconsistency requires you to know what the words "true" and "truth" mean, it might help you to have a definition. Here it is: The truth is a lie that hasn't been found out. I got that definition from my favorite intelligence service (spy organization).


Just kidding. A truth is a statement of fact, but it is too basic to define.


A group of statements is inconsistent if it’s not possible for them all be true. What does the word possible mean here? It means something like conceivable or imaginable, assuming words mean what they normally mean.1 A group of sentences (even a group the size of one) that is not inconsistent is consistent. There is no middle ground between consistent and inconsistent.


Even two false statements can be consistent with each other. These are consistent:


Abraham Lincoln is my mother.

Abraham Lincoln is your mother.


The two are consistent with each other, but not with the facts, such as the fact that Lincoln isn’t the mother of either of us.


Resolving an inconsistency can be at the heart of deep issues. Theologians recognize that they have a burden of resolving the apparent inconsistency between divine foreknowledge and human free will. Some philosophers of religion argue that the two are inconsistent because God knows what you are going to do, so you are not free to do otherwise than the way God has foreseen. Yet presumably the ability to do otherwise than you do is the essence of your free will. If there's an inconsistency, then you can't have it both ways. Other philosophers of religion say there is no inconsistency, but we won't go further into this thicket of dispute.


Inconsistency between what we expect and what we get is at the heart of many jokes. Here are some examples:

"I didn't attend the funeral, but I sent a nice letter saying I approved of it." -- Mark Twain

"I feel so miserable without you, it's almost like having you here." -- Stephen Bishop


Let me tell you a story. It is about the second time Candace lost her virginity. While she was on a bridge crossing the stream, walking up the lane toward her was a tall man with a dog.... By now you are suspicious of what I am saying because you were alert to the fact that this remark is inconsistent with our commonsense knowledge that people can lose their virginity only once.


We have now discussed some different kinds of inconsistencies. They can be put into categories (intellectual boxes). There are logical inconsistencies in which the very meaning of the words requires one of the claims to be false. Example: {Everyone left the room. She is someone who is still in the room.}


There are inconsistencies with our expectations as in Mark Twain's joke about approving of the funeral.


There are inconsistencies with facts as when we say she lost her virginity twice. Any false statement is logically inconsistent with the facts.



Are these two sentences (or statements) logically inconsistent?


Almost everyone in the room is an Arab.

He's in the room, but he's no Arab.


No, they are consistent. You can image a situation in which they are both true. If you were to change "Almost everyone" to "Everyone," then they'd be inconsistent.


The notion of logical inconsistency can get more complicated. These two statements can be said to both logically consistent and logically inconsistent:


Everybody left the room.

John is still in the room.


They are inconsistent with the assumption that John is a person, but they aren't consistent as presented, because John could be a teddy bear in the room. However, if you made these two statements to people without them knowing John was a teddy bear, then you'd be tricking them and violating the normal rules of conversation which say that ordinary names of people refer to people and not to other objects unless you say otherwise.

So, the moral about the complication is that consistency questions can depend crucially on what else you are assuming. To explore this complication a bit more, consider the relationship between these two statements.

Abraham Lincoln is currently the president of the United States.

Abraham Lincoln is a Sumo wrestler.

Would you say the two are

a. consistent

b. inconsistent

c. none of the above

You can't tell whether the answer is a or b. Neither of the two sentences are true. Each one alone is factually inconsistent or inconsistent with the facts, but they are not logically inconsistent with each other and so are logically consistent. If "b" means "factually inconsistent," then the answer is b. If "b" means "logically inconsistent," then the answer is not b. People are notoriously ambiguous when they ask about inconsistency.


Another way to describe inconsistency is to say that two or more statements are inconsistent with each other if they couldn't all be true. Now the ambiguity is embedded in what the word "could" means. Does it mean "could" as far as the meaning of the words are concerned, or "could" where it is assumed that we are comparing them to all the facts and are not allowed to change any of the current facts of the world? Here's a way to make the point.


Could eggs grow naturally on trees? They couldn't if they have to obey the laws of biology, but they could so far as what those words mean. That is, the sentence "Eggs could grow naturally on trees" violates biology but not grammar. So, we say the sentence is factually inconsistent but not logically inconsistent.


The statement that Abraham Lincoln is your mother could be true but in fact is false. Here we are using "could" in the sense of possible so far as grammar and meaning are concerned.


More on that word "could." Most false statements (sentences) could be true, as far as grammar or meaning is concerned. Similarly, most true statements could be false. But there are exceptions. Here's one. The statement "If it's raining and cold, then it's cold" is true, but it could not be false. Statements like this that can't be false without violating what words mean are said to be analytically true. The statement, "7 + 5 = 13" is analytically false. The statement that there are more than 13 chickens on Earth is true but not analytically true.


As you deal with problems of consistency in real life, you want to be alert to what people mean rather than just to what they say. For example, suppose Jack says, "Nobody got an A on that test, but she did. Wow, is she smart." What Jack said literally was self-contradictory. If you called him on it, Jack would probably say not to take him so literally because what he really meant was "Nobody (other than her) got an A on that test." What he meant is not self-contradictory. So, to get what Jack intends, you need to overlook his inconsistency.


Are these three sentences consistent?


Lincoln is taller than Jones.

Jones is taller than Shorty.

Shorty is taller than Lincoln


The three are logically inconsistent with each other. Understanding this inconsistency is all part of understanding the term "taller than." If a person couldn't see that the three sentences were inconsistent, we'd have to wonder whether they really understood what "taller than" meant.


Very often, people will use the terms "inconsistency" and "contradiction" as synonyms, but technically they aren't synonyms. A contradiction between two statements is a stronger kind of inconsistency between them. If two sentences are contradictory, then one must be true and one must be false, but if they are inconsistent, then both could be false. Do the following two statements contradict each other?

The house is all green.

The house is not all green.


Yes, these two contradict each other; one of the two must be true and the other must be false. This is so for any house. Do the following two statements contradict each other?

The house is all green.

The house is all blue.

No, both could be false; the house might be white. So, the two statements do not contradict each other, although they are logically inconsistent with each other. This inconsistency is the weaker kind of inconsistency that we call being contrary.


When you leave the logic classroom and go out onto the street, you'll find that people use our technical terms "contradiction," "inconsistent," and "contrary" in a sloppy manner; sometimes the three terms are meant to be synonyms. Few people are careful to distinguish factual inconsistency from logical inconsistency. So, you have to be alert to this and try to get at what they mean rather than just what they say.


Exercise 9.1.1

Are these two sentences consistent or inconsistent with each other?


Serena is not taller than Carlos.

Carlos is not taller than Serena.


Answer

This pair is consistent because it is possible that they are both true. They are true in a situation where Samantha and Carlos are the same height. Even if you know that Carlos really is four inches taller we still call the pair logically consistent because it is possible, as far as the meanings of the words are concerned, that there is a situation in which they are the same height.


Here is a more difficult question to answer. Are the following two statements inconsistent?


Venice was running in the Boston Marathon at 8 a.m. today.

Venice was having breakfast at Bob's Restaurant at 8 a.m. today.

Not quite. Maybe she stopped for breakfast during the marathon.


Exercise 9.1.1

Consider this consistent list of statements:


i. The president admires the first lady.

ii. The first lady also admires the president.

iii. Everybody else admires the president, too.


These statements are logically consistent. Label the following sentences as being consistent or inconsistent with the above list:


a. Everybody but the admiral admires the first lady.

b. The admiral admires the first lady but not the president.

c. The president admires other people besides the first lady.

d. The vice-president does not admire the first lady.

e. The first lady does not admire the vice-president.


Answer

(b) is inconsistent with the original three on the list. Each of the others, separately, is consistent with the original three.


Statements can even be made with body language. A man could say, "Sure, sure, I believe you" as he lifts his eyebrows and rolls his eyes. In doing so, his actions contradict what he says.


Exercise 9.1.1

Are these two sentences inconsistent?


All real televisions are appliances.

Some real televisions are appliances.


Answer

There might or might not be an inconsistency here because “some” is ambiguous in English. If “some” is meant in the sense of "at least one but definitely not all,” there is a logical inconsistency. But if “some” means "at least one and possibly more," then there is no inconsistency. Because “some” could be meant either way here, you cannot tell whether an inconsistency exists. Speakers who intend to imply with their word “some” that some are and some aren't should stick in the word “only” and say "Only some of the real televisions are appliances." From now on in this book we will make the assumption that “some” means simply “at least one but possibly more.”


¹ When we say it’s not imaginable, we mean we cannot imagine it unless we allow words to change their meanings in mid-sentence or mid-passage—which we do not allow for purposes of assessing possibility. If we were to permit language to go on holiday this way with no restrictions on equivocation, there would never be any inconsistency.


9: Consistency and Inconsistency (previous)


9.2: Identifying Self-Contradictions and Oxymorons (next)



9.1:认识不一致和矛盾 Rèn shì bùyīzhì hé máodùn

不一致性是逻辑的核心。如果你说“每个人都离开了房间”,而我说“她是一个仍然在房间里的人”,那么我说的话就与你所说的不一致了。注意到不一致是解决冲突的警钟。相互冲突的说法中有一个或两个肯定不是真的。

因为不一致性的研究要求你知道“真”和“真相”是什么意思,所以给它们下个定义可能会对你有帮助。这就是:真相是还没有被发现的谎言。这个定义是我从我最喜欢的情报机构(间谍组织)那里得到的。

我只是在开玩笑。真相是事实的陈述,但它太基础了,无法定义。

如果一组陈述不可能全部都是真的,那么它们就是不一致的。这里的“可能”是什么意思? 它意味着可以想象或可以想象,假设单词的意思与它们通常的意思相同。1 一组不矛盾的句子(即使是一个句子的大小)是一致的。一致和不一致之间没有中间地带。

即使是两个错误的陈述也可以彼此一致。这些是一致的:

亚伯拉罕·林肯是我的母亲。

亚伯拉罕·林肯是你的母亲。

这两个是一致的,但事实不一致,例如林肯不是我们任何一个人的母亲。

解决不一致可能是深层问题的核心。神学家认识到,他们有责任解决神的预知和人类自由意志之间明显的不一致。一些宗教哲学家认为,这两者不一致,因为上帝知道你要做什么,所以你不能自由地做上帝所预见以外的事。然而,据推测,做与你所做的不同的事的能力是你自由意志的本质。 如果存在不一致,那么你就无法两全其美。其他宗教哲学家说不存在不一致,但我们不会进一步陷入这种争论的泥潭。

我们的期望和我们得到的结果不一致是许多笑话的核心。以下是一些例子:

“我没有参加葬礼,但我寄了一封友好的信说我同意。”——马克·吐温

“没有你,我感觉很痛苦,就像有你在身边一样。”——斯蒂芬·毕晓普

让我给你讲个故事。这是坎迪斯第二次失去童贞的故事。当她在一座过溪的桥上时,一个高个子的男人牵着一条狗从小路上向她走来……现在,你对我所说的话产生了怀疑,因为你已经意识到这句话与我们的常识不一致,即人们只能失去童贞一次。

 我们现在讨论了一些不同类型的不一致。它们可以归类(知识框)。存在逻辑不一致,其中单词的含义本身就要求其中一个说法是错误的。例如:{每个人都离开了房间。她是仍在房间里的人。}

与我们的期望不一致,例如马克吐温关于批准葬礼的笑话。

与事实不一致,例如当我们说她两次失去童贞时。任何错误的陈述在逻辑上都与事实不一致。

这两个句子(或陈述)在逻辑上不一致吗?


房间里的几乎每个人都是阿拉伯人。

他在房间里,但他不是阿拉伯人。


不,它们是一致的。您可以想象一种两者都为真的情况。如果您将“几乎所有人”改为“每个人”,那么它们就会不一致。


 逻辑不一致的概念可能会变得更加复杂。这两个陈述可以说是逻辑上一致的,也是逻辑上不一致的:

每个人都离开了房间。

约翰还在房间里。

它们与约翰是一个人的假设不一致,但它们并不一致,因为约翰可能是房间里的一只泰迪熊。然而,如果你在人们不知道约翰是一只泰迪熊的情况下对他们说这两个话,那么你就是在欺骗他们,违反了正常的谈话规则,即除非你另有说明,否则普通人的名字指的是人而不是其他物体。

所以,关于这个复杂问题的寓意是,一致性问题可能关键取决于你还假设了什么。要进一步探讨这个复杂问题,请考虑这两个陈述之间的关系。

亚伯拉罕·林肯目前是美国总统。

亚伯拉罕·林肯是一名相扑选手。

你会说这两个是

a. 一致

b. 不一致

c. 以上都不是

你无法判断答案是 a 还是 b。这两个句子都不真实。每个句子本身在事实上都是不一致的或与事实不一致的,但它们在逻辑上并不矛盾,因此在逻辑上是一致的。如果“b”表示“事实上不一致”,那么答案就是 b。如果“b”表示“逻辑上不一致”,那么答案不是 b。人们在询问不一致时总是含糊其辞。

描述不一致的另一种方式是说,如果两个或多个陈述不可能全部为真,那么它们就是相互不一致的。现在,歧义就体现在“可能”这个词的含义中。就单词的含义而言,它是“可能”的意思,还是“可能”的意思,即假设我们将它们与所有事实进行比较,并且不允许改变世界上的任何当前事实?这里有一种方法可以说明这一点。

鸡蛋可以在树上自然生长吗? 如果要遵守生物学定律,他们就不能这样做,但就这些词的含义而言,他们可以这样做。也就是说,“鸡蛋可以自然地长在树上”这句话违反了生物学,但没有违反语法。所以,我们说这个句子在事实上不一致,但在逻辑上并不矛盾。

“亚伯拉罕·林肯是你的母亲”这个说法可能是正确的,但实际上是错误的。在这里,就语法和含义而言,我们在这里使用“可能”的意思是可能的。

更多关于“可能”这个词。就语法或含义而言,大多数错误的陈述(句子)可能是正确的。同样,大多数真实的陈述可能是错误的。但也有例外。这里有一个例外。“如果下雨而且很冷,那么天气就很冷”这个陈述是正确的,但它不可能是错误的。像这样的陈述,如果不违反词语的含义,就不会是错误的,就被认为是分析上正确的。“7 + 5 = 13”这个陈述在分析上是错误的。 地球上有超过 13 只鸡的说法是正确的,但从分析上看并不正确。

在现实生活中处理一致性问题时,你要警惕人们的意思,而不仅仅是他们说的话。例如,假设杰克说:“没有人在那次考试中得到 A,但她得到了。哇,她真聪明。”杰克说的话从字面上看是自相矛盾的。如果你就此指责他,杰克可能会说不要太字面地理解他的话,因为他真正的意思是“除了她,没有人在那次考试中得到 A。”他的意思并不自相矛盾。所以,要理解杰克的意图,你需要忽略他的不一致之处。

这三个句子一致吗?

林肯比琼斯高。

琼斯比矮子高。

矮子比林肯高

这三个句子在逻辑上是不一致的。理解这种不一致是理解“高于”一词的一部分。 如果一个人看不出这三个句子是矛盾的,我们不得不怀疑他们是否真的理解了“高于”的含义。

人们经常将“不一致”和“矛盾”这两个术语用作同义词,但从技术上讲,它们并不是同义词。两个陈述之间的矛盾是它们之间更强烈的不一致。如果两个句子是矛盾的,那么其中一个一定是真的,另一个一定是假的,但如果它们不一致,那么两者都可能是假的。以下两个陈述相互矛盾吗?

房子全是绿色的。

房子不是全是绿色的。

是的,这两个陈述相互矛盾;两者之一必须是真的,另一个必须是假的。任何房子都是如此。以下两个陈述相互矛盾吗?

房子全是绿色的。

房子全是蓝色的。

不,两者都可能是假的;房子可能是白色的。 因此,尽管这两个陈述在逻辑上不一致,但它们并不相互矛盾。这种不一致是较弱的不一致,我们称之为相反。

当你离开逻辑课堂走到街上时,你会发现人们以一种马虎的方式使用我们的技术术语“矛盾”、“不一致”和“相反”;有时这三个术语是同义词。很少有人会仔细区分事实不一致和逻辑不一致。所以,你必须对此保持警惕,并试图了解它们的含义,而不仅仅是它们所说的内容。

练习 9.1.1

这两个句子是一致的还是不一致的?

Serena 不比 Carlos 高。

Carlos 不比 Serena 高。

答案:

这两个句子是一致的,因为它们可能都是真的。在 Serena 和 Carlos 身高相同的情况下,它们是正确的。即使你知道 Carlos 确实高四英寸,我们仍然称这两个句子在逻辑上是一致的,因为就单词的含义而言,有可能存在他们身高相同的情况。

这是一个更难回答的问题。以下两个陈述是否不一致?

Venice 今天早上 8 点参加了波士顿马拉松比赛。

Venice 今天早上 8 点在 Bob's Restaurant 吃早餐。

不完全是。也许她在马拉松比赛期间停下来吃早餐。


练习 9.1.1

考虑以下一致的陈述列表:

i. 总统钦佩第一夫人。

ii. 第一夫人也钦佩总统。

iii. 其他人也钦佩总统。


这些陈述在逻辑上是一致的。将以下句子标记为与上述列表一致或不一致:

a. 除了海军上将之外,每个人都钦佩第一夫人。

b. 海军上将钦佩第一夫人,但不钦佩总统。

c. 总统钦佩第一夫人以外的其他人。

d. 副总统不钦佩第一夫人。

e. 第一夫人不钦佩副总统。


答案

(b) 与列表中的原始三项不一致。其他每一项单独与原始三项一致。


甚至可以用肢体语言来表达陈述。一个人可以一边说“当然,当然,我相信你”,一边扬起眉毛,翻白眼。这样做时,他的行为与他说的话相矛盾。


 练习 9.1.1

这两个句子是否不一致?


所有真正的电视机都是电器。

一些真正的电视机是电器。


答案

这里可能存在不一致,也可能不存在,因为“一些”在英语中含糊不清。如果“一些”的意思是“至少一个但绝对不是全部”,那么就存在逻辑上的不一致。但如果“一些”的意思是“至少一个,可能更多”,那么就不存在不一致。因为“一些”在这里可以有任意一种意思,所以你无法判断是否存在不一致。如果说话者想用“一些”这个词来暗示一些是而一些不是,那么应该坚持使用“仅”这个词,并说“只有一些真正的电视机是电器”。从现在开始,在这本书中,我们将假设“一些”的意思只是“至少一个但可能更多”。

¹ 当我们说这是不可想象的,我们的意思是,除非我们允许单词在句子中间或段落中间改变其含义,否则我们无法想象它——为了评估可能性,我们不允许这样做。如果我们允许语言以这种方式度假,而不受模棱两可的限制,那么就永远不会有任何不一致。


9:一致性和不一致性(上一个


9.2:识别自相矛盾和矛盾修饰法(下一个)


🇫🇷 French 9.1 : Reconnaître l'incohérence et la contradiction

Le sujet de l'incohérence est au cœur de la logique. Si vous dites : « Tout le monde a quitté la pièce » et que je réponds : « C'est quelqu'un qui est toujours dans la pièce », alors j'ai dit quelque chose d'incohérent avec ce que vous avez dit. Le fait de remarquer une incohérence est un signal d'alarme pour résoudre le conflit. L'une ou les deux affirmations contradictoires doivent être fausses pour être vraies.

Étant donné que l'étude de l'incohérence exige que vous sachiez ce que signifient les mots « vrai » et « vérité », il peut être utile d'en avoir une définition. La voici : la vérité est un mensonge qui n'a pas été découvert. J'ai obtenu cette définition de mon service de renseignement préféré (organisation d'espionnage).

Je plaisante. Une vérité est une déclaration de fait, mais elle est trop élémentaire pour être définie.

Un groupe d'affirmations est incohérent s'il n'est pas possible qu'elles soient toutes vraies. Que signifie le mot « possible » ici ? Cela signifie quelque chose comme concevable ou imaginable, en supposant que les mots signifient ce qu’ils signifient normalement.1 Un groupe de phrases (même un groupe de la taille d’une seule personne) qui n’est pas incohérent est cohérent. Il n’y a pas de juste milieu entre cohérent et incohérent.

Même deux fausses déclarations peuvent être cohérentes l’une avec l’autre. Celles-ci sont cohérentes :

Abraham Lincoln est ma mère.

Abraham Lincoln est ta mère.

Les deux sont cohérentes l’une avec l’autre, mais pas avec les faits, comme le fait que Lincoln n’est la mère d’aucun d’entre nous.

Résoudre une incohérence peut être au cœur de problèmes profonds. Les théologiens reconnaissent qu’ils ont la charge de résoudre l’incohérence apparente entre la prescience divine et le libre arbitre humain. Certains philosophes de la religion soutiennent que les deux sont incohérents parce que Dieu sait ce que vous allez faire, vous n’êtes donc pas libre de faire autrement que ce que Dieu a prévu. Pourtant, vraisemblablement, la capacité de faire autrement que ce que vous faites est l’essence de votre libre arbitre. S'il y a une incohérence, alors on ne peut pas avoir les deux. D'autres philosophes de la religion disent qu'il n'y a pas d'incohérence, mais nous n'entrerons pas plus loin dans ce maquis de disputes. 

L'incohérence entre ce que nous attendons et ce que nous obtenons est au cœur de nombreuses blagues. En voici quelques exemples :

"Je n'ai pas assisté aux funérailles, mais j'ai envoyé une belle lettre disant que je les approuvais." -- Mark Twain

"Je me sens si malheureux sans toi, c'est presque comme si tu étais là." -- Stephen Bishop

Laissez-moi vous raconter une histoire. C'est à peu près la deuxième fois que Candace a perdu sa virginité. Alors qu'elle était sur un pont traversant le ruisseau, un homme de grande taille avec un chien marchait dans la rue vers elle... À présent, vous vous méfiez de ce que je dis parce que vous étiez conscient du fait que cette remarque est incompatible avec notre connaissance de bon sens selon laquelle les gens ne peuvent perdre leur virginité qu'une seule fois. 

Nous avons maintenant discuté de différents types d'incohérences. On peut les classer par catégories (boîtes intellectuelles). Il y a des incohérences logiques dans lesquelles le sens même des mots exige que l'une des affirmations soit fausse. Exemple : {Tout le monde a quitté la pièce. Elle est quelqu'un qui est toujours dans la pièce.}

Il y a des incohérences avec nos attentes, comme dans la blague de Mark Twain sur l'approbation des funérailles.

Il y a des incohérences avec les faits, comme quand on dit qu'elle a perdu sa virginité deux fois. Toute fausse déclaration est logiquement incompatible avec les faits.

Ces deux phrases (ou déclarations) sont-elles logiquement incompatibles ?

Presque tout le monde dans la pièce est arabe.

Il est dans la pièce, mais il n'est pas arabe.

Non, elles sont cohérentes. Vous pouvez imaginer une situation dans laquelle elles sont toutes les deux vraies. Si vous deviez remplacer « Presque tout le monde » par « Tout le monde », elles seraient alors incompatibles.

La notion d'incohérence logique peut devenir plus compliquée. Ces deux affirmations peuvent être considérées à la fois comme logiquement cohérentes et logiquement incohérentes :

Tout le monde a quitté la pièce.

John est toujours dans la pièce.


Elles sont incompatibles avec l'hypothèse selon laquelle John est une personne, mais elles ne sont pas cohérentes telles que présentées, car John pourrait être un ours en peluche dans la pièce. Cependant, si vous faisiez ces deux affirmations à des personnes sans qu'elles sachent que John était un ours en peluche, vous les tromperiez et violeriez les règles normales de la conversation qui disent que les noms ordinaires de personnes se réfèrent à des personnes et non à d'autres objets, sauf si vous dites le contraire.

La morale de cette complication est donc que les questions de cohérence peuvent dépendre de manière cruciale de ce que vous supposez d'autre. Pour explorer un peu plus cette complication, considérez la relation entre ces deux affirmations.

Abraham Lincoln est actuellement président des États-Unis.

Abraham Lincoln est un lutteur de sumo.

Diriez-vous que les deux sont

a. cohérentes

b. incohérentes

c. aucune des réponses ci-dessus

Vous ne pouvez pas dire si la réponse est a ou b. Aucune des deux phrases n'est vraie. Chacune d'elles est factuellement incohérente ou incompatible avec les faits, mais elles ne sont pas logiquement incompatibles entre elles et sont donc logiquement cohérentes. Si « b » signifie « factuellement incompatible », alors la réponse est b. Si « b » signifie « logiquement incompatible », alors la réponse n'est pas b. Les gens sont notoirement ambigus lorsqu'ils posent des questions sur l'incohérence.


Une autre façon de décrire l'incohérence est de dire que deux ou plusieurs affirmations sont incompatibles entre elles si elles ne peuvent pas toutes être vraies. L'ambiguïté est désormais intégrée dans la signification du mot « pourrait ». Est-ce que cela signifie « pourrait » en ce qui concerne la signification des mots, ou « pourrait » lorsqu'il est supposé que nous les comparons à tous les faits et que nous ne sommes pas autorisés à modifier les faits actuels du monde ? Voici une façon de faire valoir ce point.


 Les œufs pourraient-ils pousser naturellement sur les arbres ? Ils ne le pourraient pas s'ils devaient obéir aux lois de la biologie, mais ils le pourraient en ce qui concerne la signification de ces mots. C'est-à-dire que la phrase « Les œufs pourraient pousser naturellement sur les arbres » viole la biologie mais pas la grammaire. Nous disons donc que la phrase est factuellement incohérente mais pas logiquement incohérente.


L'affirmation selon laquelle Abraham Lincoln est votre mère pourrait être vraie mais en fait elle est fausse. Ici, nous utilisons « pourrait » dans le sens de possible en ce qui concerne la grammaire et le sens.


Plus d'informations sur ce mot « pourrait ». La plupart des fausses déclarations (phrases) pourraient être vraies, en ce qui concerne la grammaire ou le sens. De même, la plupart des déclarations vraies pourraient être fausses. Mais il existe des exceptions. En voici une. L'affirmation « S'il pleut et qu'il fait froid, alors il fait froid » est vraie, mais elle ne peut pas être fausse. Des déclarations comme celle-ci qui ne peuvent pas être fausses sans violer la signification des mots sont dites analytiquement vraies. L'affirmation « 7 + 5 = 13 » est analytiquement fausse. L'affirmation selon laquelle il y a plus de 13 poulets sur Terre est vraie mais pas analytiquement vraie.


Lorsque vous traitez de problèmes de cohérence dans la vie réelle, vous devez être attentif à ce que les gens veulent dire plutôt qu'à ce qu'ils disent. Par exemple, supposons que Jack dise : « Personne n'a eu un A à ce test, mais elle oui. Waouh, qu'est-ce qu'elle est intelligente. » Ce que Jack a dit est littéralement contradictoire. Si vous le lui demandiez, Jack vous dirait probablement de ne pas le prendre au pied de la lettre, car ce qu'il voulait vraiment dire était « Personne (à part elle) n'a eu un A à ce test. » Ce qu'il voulait dire n'est pas contradictoire. Donc, pour obtenir ce que Jack veut dire, vous devez ignorer son incohérence.


Ces trois phrases sont-elles cohérentes ?


Lincoln est plus grand que Jones.

Jones est plus grand que Shorty.

Shorty est plus grand que Lincoln


Les trois sont logiquement incompatibles entre elles. Comprendre cette incohérence fait partie de la compréhension du terme « plus grand que ». Si une personne ne pouvait pas voir que les trois phrases étaient incohérentes, nous devrions nous demander si elle a vraiment compris ce que « plus grand que » voulait dire.


Très souvent, les gens utilisent les termes « incohérence » et « contradiction » comme synonymes, mais techniquement, ce ne sont pas des synonymes. Une contradiction entre deux affirmations est un type d'incohérence plus fort entre elles. Si deux phrases sont contradictoires, alors l'une doit être vraie et l'autre fausse, mais si elles sont incohérentes, alors les deux pourraient être fausses. Les deux affirmations suivantes se contredisent-elles ?


La maison est toute verte.

La maison n'est pas toute verte.


Oui, ces deux affirmations se contredisent ; l'une des deux doit être vraie et l'autre doit être fausse. Il en va de même pour n'importe quelle maison. Les deux affirmations suivantes se contredisent-elles ?

La maison est toute verte.

La maison est toute bleue.

Non, les deux pourraient être fausses ; la maison pourrait être blanche. Ainsi, les deux affirmations ne se contredisent pas, bien qu'elles soient logiquement incompatibles. Cette incohérence est le type d'incohérence le plus faible que nous appelons être contraire.

Lorsque vous quittez la salle de classe de logique et sortez dans la rue, vous constaterez que les gens utilisent nos termes techniques « contradiction », « incohérent » et « contraire » de manière approximative ; parfois, les trois termes sont censés être synonymes. Peu de gens prennent soin de distinguer l'incohérence factuelle de l'incohérence logique. Vous devez donc être attentif à cela et essayer de comprendre ce qu'ils veulent dire plutôt que simplement ce qu'ils disent.

Exercice 9.1.1

Ces deux phrases sont-elles cohérentes ou incohérentes entre elles ?


Serena n'est pas plus grande que Carlos.

Carlos n'est pas plus grand que Serena.


Réponse :

Cette paire est cohérente car il est possible qu'elles soient toutes les deux vraies. Elles sont vraies dans une situation où Serena et Carlos ont la même taille. Même si vous savez que Carlos mesure vraiment dix centimètres de plus, nous disons quand même que la paire est logiquement cohérente car il est possible, en ce qui concerne la signification des mots, qu'il y ait une situation dans laquelle ils ont la même taille.


Voici une question plus difficile à répondre. Les deux affirmations suivantes sont-elles incohérentes ?


Venice participait au marathon de Boston à 8 h 00 aujourd'hui.

Venice prenait son petit-déjeuner au restaurant Bob's à 8 h 00 aujourd'hui.

Pas tout à fait. Peut-être s'est-elle arrêtée pour prendre son petit-déjeuner pendant le marathon.


Exercice 9.1.1

Examinez cette liste cohérente d'affirmations :

i. Le président admire la première dame.

 ii. La première dame admire aussi le président.

iii. Tout le monde admire aussi le président.


Ces affirmations sont logiquement cohérentes. Étiquetez les phrases suivantes comme étant cohérentes ou non avec la liste ci-dessus :

a. Tout le monde, sauf l'amiral, admire la première dame.

b. L'amiral admire la première dame, mais pas le président.

c. Le président admire d'autres personnes en plus de la première dame.

d. Le vice-président n'admire pas la première dame.

e. La première dame n'admire pas le vice-président.

La réponse

(b) est incompatible avec les trois réponses originales de la liste. Chacune des autres réponses, séparément, est cohérente avec les trois réponses originales.


Des déclarations peuvent même être faites avec le langage corporel. Un homme pourrait dire : « Bien sûr, bien sûr, je vous crois » en levant les sourcils et en levant les yeux au ciel. Ce faisant, ses actions contredisent ce qu'il dit.


 Exercice 9.1.1

Ces deux phrases sont-elles incohérentes ?


Tous les vrais téléviseurs sont des appareils électroménagers.

Certains vrais téléviseurs sont des appareils électroménagers.


Réponse

Il peut ou non y avoir une incohérence ici, car « some » est ambigu en anglais. Si « some » est entendu dans le sens de « au moins un mais certainement pas tous », il y a une incohérence logique. Mais si « some » signifie « au moins un et éventuellement plus », alors il n'y a pas d'incohérence. Étant donné que « some » peut être entendu dans les deux sens ici, vous ne pouvez pas dire s'il y a une incohérence. Les locuteurs qui ont l'intention d'impliquer avec leur mot « some » que certains sont et certains ne le sont pas devraient insérer le mot « only » et dire « Seuls certains des vrais téléviseurs sont des appareils électroménagers ». À partir de maintenant, dans ce livre, nous partirons du principe que « some » signifie simplement « au moins un mais éventuellement plus ».

¹ Quand nous disons que ce n’est pas imaginable, nous voulons dire que nous ne pouvons pas l’imaginer à moins de permettre aux mots de changer de sens au milieu d’une phrase ou d’un passage – ce que nous ne permettons pas aux fins d’évaluer la possibilité. Si nous permettions au langage de partir en vacances de cette façon sans aucune restriction sur l’équivoque, il n’y aurait jamais d’incohérence.


9 : Cohérence et incohérence (précédent)


9.2 : Identifier les contradictions et les oxymores (suivant)


🇩🇪 German 9.1: Inkonsistenz und Widerspruch erkennen

Das Thema Inkonsistenz ist das Herzstück der Logik. Wenn Sie sagen: „Alle haben den Raum verlassen“, und ich sage: „Sie ist jemand, der noch im Raum ist“, dann habe ich etwas gesagt, das im Widerspruch zu dem steht, was Sie gesagt haben. Das Erkennen einer Inkonsistenz ist ein Weckruf, den Konflikt zu lösen. Eine oder beide der widersprüchlichen Behauptungen müssen nicht wahr sein.

Da Sie für die Untersuchung von Inkonsistenz wissen müssen, was die Wörter „wahr“ und „Wahrheit“ bedeuten, könnte Ihnen eine Definition helfen. Hier ist sie: Die Wahrheit ist eine Lüge, die nicht aufgedeckt wurde. Diese Definition habe ich von meinem Lieblingsgeheimdienst (Spionageorganisation).

Ich mache nur Spaß. Eine Wahrheit ist eine Tatsachenbehauptung, aber sie ist zu grundlegend, um sie zu definieren.

Eine Gruppe von Aussagen ist inkonsistent, wenn es nicht möglich ist, dass sie alle wahr sind. Was bedeutet das Wort „möglich“ hier? Es bedeutet so etwas wie denkbar oder vorstellbar, vorausgesetzt, Wörter bedeuten, was sie normalerweise bedeuten.1 Eine Gruppe von Sätzen (selbst eine Gruppe von einem Satz), die nicht inkonsistent ist, ist konsistent. Es gibt keinen Mittelweg zwischen konsistent und inkonsistent.

Sogar zwei falsche Aussagen können miteinander konsistent sein. Diese sind konsistent:

Abraham Lincoln ist meine Mutter.

Abraham Lincoln ist deine Mutter.


Die beiden sind miteinander konsistent, aber nicht mit den Fakten, wie etwa der Tatsache, dass Lincoln nicht die Mutter von uns beiden ist.

Die Lösung einer Inkonsistenz kann der Kern tiefer Probleme sein. Theologen erkennen an, dass sie die Bürde haben, die offensichtliche Inkonsistenz zwischen göttlicher Voraussicht und menschlichem freien Willen zu lösen. Einige Religionsphilosophen argumentieren, dass die beiden inkonsistent sind, weil Gott weiß, was Sie tun werden, Sie also nicht frei sind, anders zu handeln, als Gott es vorhergesehen hat. Doch vermutlich ist die Fähigkeit, anders zu handeln, als Sie es tun, die Essenz Ihres freien Willens. Wenn es eine Inkonsistenz gibt, dann kann man nicht beides haben. Andere Religionsphilosophen sagen, es gebe keine Inkonsistenz, aber wir wollen uns nicht weiter in dieses Dickicht der Streitigkeiten vertiefen.

Inkonsistenz zwischen dem, was wir erwarten, und dem, was wir bekommen, ist der Kern vieler Witze. Hier sind einige Beispiele:

„Ich war nicht bei der Beerdigung, aber ich habe einen netten Brief geschickt, in dem ich sagte, dass ich damit einverstanden bin.“ – Mark Twain

„Ich fühle mich so elend ohne dich, es ist fast so, als ob du hier wärst.“ – Stephen Bishop

Lassen Sie mich Ihnen eine Geschichte erzählen. Es geht um das zweite Mal, als Candace ihre Jungfräulichkeit verlor. Während sie auf einer Brücke über den Bach war, kam ihr ein großer Mann mit einem Hund den Weg hinauf entgegen … Inzwischen sind Sie misstrauisch gegenüber dem, was ich sage, weil Ihnen bewusst war, dass diese Bemerkung nicht mit unserem gesunden Menschenverstand übereinstimmt, dass Menschen ihre Jungfräulichkeit nur einmal verlieren können.

Wir haben jetzt einige verschiedene Arten von Inkonsistenzen besprochen. Sie können in Kategorien (intellektuelle Schubladen) eingeordnet werden. Es gibt logische Widersprüche, bei denen die Bedeutung der Wörter erfordert, dass eine der Behauptungen falsch ist. Beispiel: {Alle haben den Raum verlassen. Sie ist jemand, der noch im Raum ist.}

Es gibt Widersprüche mit unseren Erwartungen, wie in Mark Twains Witz über die Genehmigung der Beerdigung.

Es gibt Widersprüche mit Fakten, wie wenn wir sagen, sie habe ihre Jungfräulichkeit zweimal verloren. Jede falsche Aussage ist logisch widersprüchlich mit den Fakten.

Sind diese beiden Sätze (oder Aussagen) logisch widersprüchlich?

Fast jeder im Raum ist ein Araber.

Er ist im Raum, aber er ist kein Araber.


Nein, sie sind widersprüchlich. Sie können sich eine Situation vorstellen, in der beide wahr sind. Wenn Sie „Fast jeder“ in „Jeder“ ändern würden, wären sie widersprüchlich.

Der Begriff der logischen Widersprüchlichkeit kann noch komplizierter werden. Diese beiden Aussagen können sowohl als logisch konsistent als auch als logisch inkonsistent bezeichnet werden:

Alle haben den Raum verlassen.

John ist noch im Raum.


Sie sind inkonsistent mit der Annahme, dass John eine Person ist, aber sie sind nicht konsistent, wie sie dargestellt werden, weil John ein Teddybär im Raum sein könnte. Wenn Sie diese beiden Aussagen jedoch Leuten gegenüber machen würden, ohne dass diese wüssten, dass John ein Teddybär ist, würden Sie sie austricksen und die normalen Gesprächsregeln verletzen, die besagen, dass sich gewöhnliche Personennamen auf Personen und nicht auf andere Objekte beziehen, sofern Sie nichts anderes sagen.

Die Moral dieser Komplikation ist also, dass Konsistenzfragen entscheidend davon abhängen können, was Sie sonst noch annehmen. Um diese Komplikation etwas genauer zu untersuchen, betrachten Sie die Beziehung zwischen diesen beiden Aussagen.

Abraham Lincoln ist derzeit Präsident der Vereinigten Staaten.

Abraham Lincoln ist Sumoringer.


Würden Sie sagen, dass die beiden

a. konsistent

b. inkonsistent

c. keines der oben genannten sind

Sie können nicht sagen, ob die Antwort a oder b ist. Keiner der beiden Sätze ist wahr. Jeder für sich ist faktisch inkonsistent oder inkonsistent mit den Fakten, aber sie sind nicht logisch inkonsistent zueinander und daher logisch konsistent. Wenn „b“ „faktisch inkonsistent“ bedeutet, dann ist die Antwort b. Wenn „b“ „logisch inkonsistent“ bedeutet, dann ist die Antwort nicht b. Menschen sind notorisch zweideutig, wenn sie nach Inkonsistenz fragen.

Eine andere Möglichkeit, Inkonsistenz zu beschreiben, besteht darin, zu sagen, dass zwei oder mehr Aussagen inkonsistent zueinander sind, wenn sie nicht alle wahr sein könnten. Nun steckt die Mehrdeutigkeit in der Bedeutung des Wortes „könnte“ fest. Bedeutet es „könnte“, soweit es die Bedeutung der Wörter betrifft, oder „könnte“, wenn davon ausgegangen wird, dass wir sie mit allen Fakten vergleichen und keine der aktuellen Fakten der Welt ändern dürfen? Hier ist eine Möglichkeit, das klarzustellen.

Könnten Eier auf natürliche Weise auf Bäumen wachsen? Sie könnten es nicht, wenn sie den Gesetzen der Biologie gehorchen müssten, aber sie könnten es, was die Bedeutung dieser Worte angeht. Das heißt, der Satz „Eier könnten natürlich auf Bäumen wachsen“ verstößt gegen die Biologie, aber nicht gegen die Grammatik. Wir sagen also, der Satz ist faktisch inkonsistent, aber nicht logisch inkonsistent.

Die Aussage, dass Abraham Lincoln Ihre Mutter ist, könnte wahr sein, ist aber in Wirklichkeit falsch. Hier verwenden wir „könnte“ im Sinne von möglich, was Grammatik und Bedeutung betrifft.

Mehr zu diesem Wort „könnte“. Die meisten falschen Aussagen (Sätze) könnten wahr sein, was Grammatik oder Bedeutung betrifft. Ebenso könnten die meisten wahren Aussagen falsch sein. Aber es gibt Ausnahmen. Hier ist eine. Die Aussage „Wenn es regnet und kalt ist, dann ist es kalt“ ist wahr, aber sie könnte nicht falsch sein. Aussagen wie diese, die nicht falsch sein können, ohne die Bedeutung von Worten zu verletzen, werden als analytisch wahr bezeichnet. Die Aussage „7 + 5 = 13“ ist analytisch falsch. Die Aussage, dass es mehr als 13 Hühner auf der Erde gibt, ist wahr, aber analytisch nicht wahr.

Wenn Sie sich im wirklichen Leben mit Konsistenzproblemen befassen, sollten Sie darauf achten, was die Leute meinen, und nicht nur darauf, was sie sagen. Nehmen wir zum Beispiel an, Jack sagt: „Niemand hat in diesem Test eine 1 bekommen, aber sie schon. Wow, ist sie schlau.“ Was Jack wörtlich sagte, war widersprüchlich. Wenn Sie ihn darauf ansprechen würden, würde Jack wahrscheinlich sagen, dass Sie ihn nicht so wörtlich nehmen sollten, weil er eigentlich gemeint hatte: „Niemand (außer ihr) hat in diesem Test eine 1 bekommen.“ Was er meinte, ist nicht widersprüchlich. Um also zu verstehen, was Jack beabsichtigt, müssen Sie seine Inkonsistenz übersehen.

Sind diese drei Sätze konsistent?

Lincoln ist größer als Jones.

Jones ist größer als Shorty.

Shorty ist größer als Lincoln.


Die drei sind logisch inkonsistent zueinander. Das Verständnis dieser Inkonsistenz ist Teil des Verständnisses des Begriffs „größer als“. Wenn jemand nicht erkennen könnte, dass die drei Sätze inkonsistent sind, müsste man sich fragen, ob er wirklich verstanden hat, was „größer als“ bedeutet.


Sehr oft werden die Begriffe „Inkonsistenz“ und „Widerspruch“ synonym verwendet, aber technisch gesehen sind sie keine Synonyme. Ein Widerspruch zwischen zwei Aussagen ist eine stärkere Art von Inkonsistenz zwischen ihnen. Wenn zwei Sätze widersprüchlich sind, muss einer wahr und einer falsch sein, aber wenn sie inkonsistent sind, könnten beide falsch sein. Widersprechen sich die folgenden beiden Aussagen?

Das Haus ist ganz grün.

Das Haus ist nicht ganz grün.


Ja, diese beiden widersprechen sich; eine der beiden muss wahr und die andere falsch sein. Dies ist bei jedem Haus so. Widersprechen sich die folgenden beiden Aussagen?

Das Haus ist ganz grün.

Das Haus ist ganz blau.

Nein, beide könnten falsch sein; das Haus könnte weiß sein. Die beiden Aussagen widersprechen sich also nicht, obwohl sie logisch inkonsistent sind. Diese Inkonsistenz ist die schwächere Art der Inkonsistenz, die wir als widersprüchlich bezeichnen.


Wenn Sie den Logik-Klassenraum verlassen und auf die Straße gehen, werden Sie feststellen, dass die Leute unsere Fachbegriffe „Widerspruch“, „inkonsistent“ und „widersprüchlich“ schlampig verwenden; manchmal sind die drei Begriffe synonym zu verstehen. Nur wenige Leute achten darauf, faktische Inkonsistenz von logischer Inkonsistenz zu unterscheiden. Sie müssen also darauf achten und versuchen, herauszufinden, was sie meinen, und nicht nur, was sie sagen. 

Übung 9.1.1

Sind diese beiden Sätze konsistent oder inkonsistent zueinander?

Serena ist nicht größer als Carlos.

Carlos ist nicht größer als Serena.


Antwort:

Dieses Paar ist konsistent, weil es möglich ist, dass beide wahr sind. Sie sind wahr in einer Situation, in der Serena und Carlos gleich groß sind. Selbst wenn Sie wissen, dass Carlos wirklich zehn Zentimeter größer ist, nennen wir das Paar immer noch logisch konsistent, weil es, was die Bedeutung der Wörter betrifft, möglich ist, dass es eine Situation gibt, in der sie gleich groß sind.


Hier ist eine schwieriger zu beantwortende Frage. Sind die folgenden beiden Aussagen inkonsistent?


Venice ist heute um 8 Uhr beim Boston-Marathon mitgelaufen.

Venice hat heute um 8 Uhr in Bobs Restaurant gefrühstückt.

Nicht ganz. Vielleicht hat sie während des Marathons zum Frühstück angehalten.


Übung 9.1.1

Betrachten Sie diese konsistente Liste von Aussagen:


i. Der Präsident bewundert die First Lady.


 ii. Die First Lady bewundert auch den Präsidenten.


iii. Alle anderen bewundern den Präsidenten ebenfalls.


Diese Aussagen sind logisch konsistent. Kennzeichnen Sie die folgenden Sätze als konsistent oder inkonsistent mit der obigen Liste:


a. Alle außer dem Admiral bewundern die First Lady.


b. Der Admiral bewundert die First Lady, aber nicht den Präsidenten.


c. Der Präsident bewundert andere Menschen außer der First Lady.


d. Der Vizepräsident bewundert die First Lady nicht.


e. Die First Lady bewundert den Vizepräsidenten nicht.


Antwort

(b) ist inkonsistent mit den ursprünglichen drei auf der Liste. Jeder der anderen ist für sich genommen konsistent mit den ursprünglichen drei.


Aussagen können sogar mit der Körpersprache gemacht werden. Ein Mann könnte sagen: „Sicher, sicher, ich glaube Ihnen“, während er die Augenbrauen hochzieht und die Augen verdreht. Dabei widersprechen seine Handlungen dem, was er sagt.


 Übung 9.1.1

Sind diese beiden Sätze inkonsistent?


Alle echten Fernseher sind Haushaltsgeräte.

Einige echte Fernseher sind Haushaltsgeräte.


Antwort

Hier kann eine Inkonsistenz vorliegen oder auch nicht, da „einige“ im Englischen mehrdeutig ist. Wenn „einige“ im Sinne von „mindestens einer, aber definitiv nicht alle“ gemeint ist, liegt eine logische Inkonsistenz vor. Wenn „einige“ jedoch „mindestens einer und möglicherweise mehr“ bedeutet, liegt keine Inkonsistenz vor. Da „einige“ hier auf beide Arten gemeint sein könnte, können Sie nicht sagen, ob eine Inkonsistenz vorliegt. Sprecher, die mit ihrem Wort „einige“ andeuten möchten, dass einige Geräte sind und andere nicht, sollten das Wort „nur“ einfügen und sagen: „Nur einige der echten Fernseher sind Geräte.“ Von nun an gehen wir in diesem Buch davon aus, dass „einige“ einfach „mindestens einer, aber möglicherweise mehr“ bedeutet.

¹ Wenn wir sagen, dass es nicht vorstellbar ist, meinen wir, dass wir es uns nicht vorstellen können, es sei denn, wir lassen zu, dass Wörter mitten im Satz oder mitten im Text ihre Bedeutung ändern – was wir nicht zulassen, wenn wir Möglichkeiten beurteilen wollen. Wenn wir der Sprache erlauben würden, auf diese Weise Urlaub zu machen, ohne Einschränkungen bei Mehrdeutigkeiten, gäbe es nie Inkonsistenzen.


9: Konsistenz und Inkonsistenz (vorherige)


9.2: Selbstwidersprüche und Oxymorone erkennen (nächste)

9: Consistency and Inconsistency

 Your goal is to maintain the consistency of your beliefs as you add new beliefs. This chapter is devoted to exploring how to achieve this goal. All of us want to remove any inconsistent beliefs we have, because if we don’t then we are accepting something impossible. We aren’t like the red queen in Alice in Wonderland who said she could believe six impossible things before breakfast.

一致性和不一致性 

Yīzhì xìng hé bùyīzhì xìng

你的目标是在增加新信念时保持信念的一致性。Nǐ de mùbiāo shì zài zēngjiā xīn xìnniàn shí bǎochí xìnniàn de yīzhì xìng.  本章致力于探索如何实现这一目标。Běnzhāng zhìlì yú tànsuǒ rúhé shíxiàn zhè yī mùbiāo. 我们所有人都想消除任何不一致的信念,Wǒmen suǒyǒu rén dōu xiǎng xiāochú rènhé bùyīzhì de xìnniàn, 因为如果我们不这样做,yīnwèi rúguǒ wǒmen bù zhèyàng zuò, 那么我们就是在接受不可能的事情。nàme wǒmen jiùshì zài jiēshòu bù kěnéng de shìqíng.  我们不像爱丽丝梦游仙境中的红皇后,Wǒmen bù xiàng àilì sī mèngyóu xiānjìng zhōng de hóng huánghòu, 她说她可以在早餐前相信六件不可能的事情。tā shuō tā kěyǐ zài zǎocān qián xiāngxìn liù jiàn bù kěnéng de shìqíng.

(Français/French: Cohérence et incohérence

Votre objectif est de maintenir la cohérence de vos croyances à mesure que vous en ajoutez de nouvelles. Ce chapitre est consacré à l’exploration de la manière d’atteindre cet objectif. Nous voulons tous éliminer toutes les croyances incohérentes que nous avons, car si nous ne le faisons pas, nous acceptons quelque chose d’impossible. Nous ne sommes pas comme la reine rouge d’Alice au pays des merveilles qui a dit qu’elle pouvait croire six choses impossibles avant le petit-déjeuner.)

(German/Deutsch: Cohérence et incohérence

Ihr Ziel ist es, die Konsistenz Ihrer Überzeugungen aufrechtzuerhalten, wenn Sie neue Überzeugungen hinzufügen. In diesem Kapitel wird untersucht, wie Sie dieses Ziel erreichen. Wir alle möchten inkonsistente Überzeugungen loswerden, denn wenn wir das nicht tun, akzeptieren wir etwas Unmögliches. Wir sind nicht wie die rote Königin in Alice im Wunderland, die sagte, sie könne vor dem Frühstück sechs unmögliche Dinge glauben.)


Next ; 下一个 Xià yīgè; suivant; nächste


John Lennox address the question: WHY I AM A CHRISTIAN

 TRANSCRIPT:


John Lennox – Professor of Mathematics at Oxford University


Well, ladies and gentlemen, it’s an immense honour to be with you — all three of you — and it’s lovely to see such a crowd.


Now, I spent a lot of time in Russia, and in Russia, people lecture while they’re sitting, so I’m about to sit. And you will pardon me because I’m rather elderly, about twice the maximum age of anybody in this room, and therefore it is a much more pleasant thing for me, and I hope for you that I sit in this way before you.


I’ve been asked to address the question: WHY I AM A CHRISTIAN, and I’m very delighted that Dan preceded me because, ladies and gentlemen, here you have an example of a young man who, up until recently, found his world closing in on him, and suddenly, just over a period of time, something happens to him that begins to expand both his mind and his heart and changes his life fundamentally so that his songs are filled now with meaning.


And you know, if I were to summarize in just a few words why I’m a Christian, it’s because Christ gives me the biggest story to put my life into of any story that there is on offer. In other words, He solves for me the problem of meaning and significance, and that’s the question we ask all the time: Who am I? What is my significance?

(你知道,如果要我用几句话概括我为什么是基督徒,那是因为基督给了我人生中最精彩的故事。换句话说,他为我解决了意义和重要性的问题,而这正是我们一直在问的问题:我是谁?我的意义是什么?)

(Français/French: Et vous savez, si je devais résumer en quelques mots pourquoi je suis chrétien, ce serait parce que le Christ m’offre la plus grande histoire dans laquelle mettre ma vie, parmi toutes celles qui existent. En d’autres termes, il résout pour moi le problème du sens et de la signification, et c’est la question que nous posons tout le temps : Qui suis-je ? Quelle est ma signification ?)


And in the sea of humanity, we often feel so terribly small, and we feel so unsuccessful in life. We look around at those who are more talented, more beautiful, more able, more skilled, and we see the defects in ourselves, and we look back over a record of messing it up. And we wondered, is there any ultimate significance? And many atheists will help us and tell us that there is no ultimate significance. All you are as a human being is an eczema on the face of the universe with no more significance, as one philosopher put it, than slime mold.

在人海茫茫中,我们常常感到自己如此渺小,感到人生如此不成功。我们环顾身边那些更有才华、更美丽、更能干、更熟练的人,却发现自己的缺陷,回顾自己一团糟的记录。我们想知道,终极意义是否存在?许多无神论者会帮助我们,告诉我们终极意义是不存在的。作为人类,你只不过是宇宙表面的一块湿疹,正如一位哲学家所说,你和黏菌一样毫无意义。

(Français/French: Et dans la mer de l’humanité, nous nous sentons souvent terriblement petits et nous avons l’impression d’avoir échoué dans la vie. Nous regardons autour de nous ceux qui sont plus talentueux, plus beaux, plus capables, plus compétents, et nous voyons nos défauts, et nous nous penchons sur nos erreurs passées. Et nous nous demandons s’il y a une signification ultime. Et de nombreux athées nous aideront et nous diront qu’il n’y a pas de signification ultime. Tout ce que vous êtes en tant qu’être humain est un eczéma sur la surface de l’univers qui n’a pas plus de signification, comme l’a dit un philosophe, que la moisissure visqueuse.)


And ladies and gentlemen, the battle in your mind, tonight as well, is the battle over the question: WHO AM I?

你心中的斗争就是围绕这个问题的斗争:我是谁?

(Français/French: Et la bataille dans votre esprit est la bataille sur la question : QUI SUIS-JE ?)


I love the ancient Greeks, you know, I hope you do. They were brilliant. And they started examining the universe, and they started asking questions: WHAT’S THIS MADE OF? And they got very good at that, and so in our universities, we have all kinds of faculties exploring what things are made of, material science, and so on. What’s the universe made of? What are you made of? And we know a great deal about what we’ve made of, and we can get it repaired, generally speaking, up to a certain level.


But the Greeks asked deeper questions. And one of those deeper questions was: WHAT IS THIS MADE FOR?

其中一个更深层次的问题是:这是用来做什么的?

(Français/French: Et l’une de ces questions plus profondes était : À QUOI EST-CE FAIT ?)


That’s a harder question. And it’s a question I’d like you to face tonight. You may never have asked it before. It’s this: WHAT AM I MADE FOR, IF ANYTHING? You know so much about what you’re made of, but what were you made for?

这是一个比较难回答的问题。我希望你能正视这个问题。你可能从未问过这个问题。问题是:我是为了什么而生?你对自己的构成非常了解,但你是为了什么而生?

(Français/French: C’est une question plus difficile. J’aimerais que vous vous posiez cette question. Vous ne l’avez peut-être jamais posée auparavant. C’est la suivante : POUR QUOI SUIS-JE FAIT, SI JE LE SUIS ? Vous en savez tellement sur ce dont vous êtes fait, mais pour quoi avez-vous été fait ?)


Let me illustrate this. Suppose I were to get one of these four-by-four vehicles that I see clogging up the streets of Perth and getting in my way. And I take it home, and you’re a very good salesman, and you decide to follow me up.


So after three months, you turn up at my home, and to your utter amazement, the four-by-four is sitting in the middle of the garden, full of tomato plants. And you knock my door in great bewilderment, and you say, ‘Excuse me, Professor Lennox?’


‘Oh, I’m so glad you came. You know, this is the best greenhouse I’ve ever had, because I’ve been growing the biggest tomatoes in my neighbourhood.’ You know, there’s a thing on the front panel here called AC, and I find if I tune it just to the right spot and leave it for a few weeks, I get these colossal tomatoes.


Now what would you think? Well, I suspect you’d advise a psychiatrist, but before you did that, you might say, oh, pardon me, that’s not what it’s for.


WHAT ARE YOU FOR? Have you ever asked yourself the question? You’ve got various goals in life, and as those goals fall, you discover that somehow they don’t satisfy you.

你是为了什么?你问过自己这个问题吗?你的人生有各种各样的目标,而随着这些目标的实现,你发现它们无法满足你。

(Français/French: À QUOI SERVEZ-VOUS ? Vous êtes-vous déjà posé cette question ? Vous avez plusieurs objectifs dans la vie et, à mesure que ces objectifs s'effondrent, vous découvrez que, d'une certaine manière, ils ne vous satisfont pas.)


How many people I’ve sat with who’ve got to the very top, and I say to them, ‘Where are you going to go from here? What have you discovered at the top?’ And the answer is nothing.

我曾与许多到达顶峰的人坐在一起,问他们:“接下来你要去哪里?在顶峰你发现了什么?”答案是,什么也没有。

(Français/French: Combien de personnes avec qui j'ai discuté ont atteint le sommet et je leur ai demandé : « Où allez-vous aller à partir d'ici ? Qu'avez-vous découvert au sommet ? » Et la réponse est : rien.)


One famous tennis player said, ‘I got to the top, and I discovered there was nothing there.’

一位著名的网球运动员说过:“我登上了顶峰,却发现那里什么都没有。”

(Français/French: Un célèbre joueur de tennis a déclaré : « Je suis arrivé au sommet et j’ai découvert qu’il n’y avait rien là-bas. »)


Have you begun to discover there’s nothing there? Dan is a fortunate young man. He started to discover it in his 20s, and we’ve got to be ruthlessly honest, ladies and gentlemen, in asking this question: WHAT ARE WE FOR?

你有没有开始发现那里什么都没有?我们必须毫不留情地诚实地问自己这个问题:我们是为了什么?

(Français/ French: Avez-vous commencé à découvrir qu’il n’y a rien là-bas ? Nous devons être impitoyablement honnêtes en posant cette question : À QUOI SOMMES-NOUS ?)


Well, now, of course, when it comes to my four by four, I would expect the dealer to refer me to the book of instructions. And of course, you know the general rule, when all else fails, read the instructions. And the sophistication of everybody’s gizmos these days is such that the instructions are on CDs in inaccessible places, and you rack your brains trying to sort out how to get your iPhone connected and all the rest of it.


ARE THERE ANY INSTRUCTIONS FOR HUMAN BEINGS?

有没有针对人类的指导?

(FRANÇAIS/FRENCH: Y A-T-IL DES INSTRUCTIONS POUR LES ÊTRES HUMAINS ?)


Oh, you say, don’t be foolish. This is the 21st century. Instructions that there were instructions for human beings, that would mean there was an instructor, and now you’re beginning to talk about God, aren’t you?


‘Are you a Professor at Oxford, you ought to be ashamed of yourself. You can’t possibly expect us to raise the God question and instructions in the 21st century.’


WHY NOT, ladies and gentlemen? Where did your iPhone come from? It’s a brilliant result of technology, isn’t it? Where did technology come from? It came from modern science. Where did modern science come from? Belief in God, ladies and gentlemen, that’s where it came from. We’ve forgotten it, of course.

你的智能手机是从哪里来的?它是科技的杰出成果,不是吗?科技是从哪里来的?它来自现代科学。现代科学是从哪里来的?对上帝的信仰,这就是它的来源。当然,我们已经忘记了。

(Français/French: D’où vient votre smartphone ? C’est un résultat brillant de la technologie, n’est-ce pas ? D’où vient la technologie ? Elle vient de la science moderne. D’où vient la science moderne ? De la croyance en Dieu, c’est de là qu’elle vient. Nous l’avons oublié, bien sûr.)


C.S. Lewis put it brilliantly, men became scientific. Why? Because they expected law in nature. Why? Because they believed in the Law Giver.

人类变得科学起来。为什么?因为他们期待自然规律。为什么?因为他们相信立法者。

(Français/French: Les hommes sont devenus scientifiques. Pourquoi ? Parce qu’ils s’attendaient à ce que la nature ait des lois. Pourquoi ? Parce qu’ils croyaient au Législateur.)


You see, I’m not remotely ashamed to be both a scientist and a Christian because Christianity arguably gave me my subject. And it odd therefore that Isaac Newton, Galileo, Kepler, Babbage, Torque Maxwell, all of them were believers in God. It didn’t hinder the science. It was the powerful motor that drove it.


What’s fascinating to me? It’s even more fascinating when you realize that people like Stephen Hawking, who was just ahead of me at Cambridge and light years ahead of me in his brain power, he says, ‘You’ve now got to choose between science and God.’


Newton didn’t say that. The more he studied the universe, the more he admired the genius of the God that did it that way. His law of gravity, which he incorporated in his famous book Principia Mathematica, where he said that he hoped it would persuade thinking people to believe in a deity.


HOW HAVE WE MOVED FROM NEWTON TO HAWKING?


I want to suggest to you, ladies and gentlemen. We’ve moved from Newton to Hawking by a series of colossal and partly deliberate misunderstandings of two things. One is the nature of God, and the other is the nature of science, very briefly, because this is part of why I’m a Christian, because it makes sense of my science. It gives me a rational basis for doing it.


The problem with God is that many of the atheists who are my friends think that I believe in a God of the gaps, that is, I can’t explain it, therefore God did it. Like the Greek God of lightning, do atmospheric physics at the University of Western Australia and that God will disappear in a single lecture. Those gods disappear by the advance of science.


And if you think God is a God of the gaps, of course you’ll ask people to choose between God and science, but the problem is that’s the way you’ve defined God.


The God of the Bible isn’t the God of the gaps, He’s the God of the whole show. The gods are the bits we do understand, and the gods are the bits we don’t understand. He is the Creator and Sustainer of the universe. And one of the major problems in the contemporary debate is that people relegate the God of the Bible to be a Greek god and then dismiss it. The argument is pseudo.


People who do that haven’t the faintest notion about the ancient gods, but let me tell you that one of the world’s authorities on ancient Near Eastern gods, Werner Jaeger, a professor at Oxford, just says this: ‘The difference is vast. The ancient gods of the Greeks, the Romans, the Assyrians, the Babylonians, are all descended from the universe. They are products of the basic primeval mass energy of the universe. The God of the Bible created the universe. That’s the difference.’


So we need to be clear about God, but then we need to be clear about science. Because you see, the problem is people say, well, we’ve got a law of gravity, says Hawking, therefore the universe can and will create itself from nothing.


Now, apart from the triple logical self-contradiction in that sentence, because we’ve got a law of gravity, because we have something, the universe will create itself from nothing, which is a flat contradiction, as will be obvious even at this time of night. (*Self-contradictory statements are false, but false statements need not self-contradictory.)


What he’s saying is, because we’ve done some science, therefore there’s no God. We’ve got a law of gravity, marvelous.


What would you think if I said to you? Well, there are two explanations for a motor car. One, the law of internal combustion. Two, Henry Ford, please choose. Well, that’s absurd, isn’t it? I find even children can see what professors can’t see. There are different kinds of explanation. There’s a scientific explanation. Why is the kettle boiling? Because the heat energy has got to such a stage that the molecules of water are vibrating that they’re spitting off steam and the pressure’s building up and the whistle’s going. That’s why it’s boiling. No, it isn’t. It’s boiling because I want a cup of tea.


Well, I’m glad you laugh, because now you’ve understood the difference between two kinds of explanation. It’s the same at the level of the universe, ladies and gentlemen. God is not the same kind of explanation as a scientific explanation. God is the reason there are any explanations at all.


When Lawrence Krauss wrote an article saying the Higgs boson is arguably more important than God, I wrote another article answering him, saying, yes, of course, the Higgs boson is arguably more important than God if the question you’re asking, if you’re giving a lecture on particle physics. (** The Higgs boson, sometimes called the Higgs particle, is an elementary particle in the Standard Model of particle physics produced by the quantum excitation of the Higgs field, one of the fields in particle physics theory. In the Standard Model, the Higgs particle is a massive scalar boson with zero spin, even parity, no electric charge, and no colour charge that couples to mass. It is also very unstable, decaying into other particles almost immediately upon generation. The Higgs field is a scalar field with two neutral and two electrically charged components that form a complex doublet of the weak isospin SU symmetry. Its "Sombrero potential" leads it to take a nonzero value everywhere, which breaks the weak isospin symmetry of the electroweak interaction and, via the Higgs mechanism, gives a rest mass to all massive elementary particles of the Standard Model, including the Higgs boson itself. )


But if you’re asking the question, why is there a universe at all in which particle physics can be done, then God is arguably more important than the Higgs boson.


You see, what’s happening in our culture is people are fooling you by presenting you with a set of false alternatives, God or science, mechanism or agency, gravity or God, and all this kind of thing. And a moment’s thought shows that they haven’t a clue about philosophy.


Stephen Hawking actually says in his book, Philosophy is Dead. That’s about page three, and the whole book is about philosophy. And he proves very effectively that, at least in his case, philosophy is completely dead. And I mean that seriously. I find it astonishing misuse of science for people to argue that science and God are in conflict. They’re not.


Conflict lies, ladies and gentlemen, is between two worldviews: atheism and theism. And there are scientists at the highest level, even the Nobel Prize level, on both sides.


So what we’ve got to ask really is: DOES SCIENCE LEAD TOWARDS GOD OR LEAD TOWARD ATHEISM?

所以我们真正要问的是:科学是引领人们走向上帝还是走向无神论?

(La question que nous devons donc nous poser est la suivante : LA SCIENCE MÈNE-T-ELLE VERS DIEU OU VERS L’ATHÉISME ?)


Now, I’ve made the point from history. I’m just going to make another point, because this doesn’t get us to Christianity yet, but it clears some of the fog that stands in the way of many people even beginning to see what Christianity claims.


You see, my big reason for rejecting atheism is because I’m a scientist, not because I’m a Christian. And here’s the reason.

你看,我拒绝无神论的主要原因是因为我是一名科学家,而不是因为我是一名基督徒。原因如下。

(Vous voyez, ma principale raison pour rejeter l’athéisme est que je suis un scientifique, pas parce que je suis chrétien. Et voici la raison.)


WHAT DO I DO SCIENCE WITH?

我利用什么来做科学研究?

AVEC QUOI FAIS-JE DE LA SCIENCE ?


Well, you say, my mind. Well, that’s generous, because most of my atheistic colleagues say the mind is the brain. There’s nothing but the brain stuff.


Then I ask them, ‘What’s the brain?’


And they say, ‘Well, the brain is the end product of a mindless, unguided process.’


And then I say, ‘And you trust it?’


Isn’t it ironic that people are prepared to trust what they themselves believe to be the end product of a mindless, unguided process when, if they knew that their computer, which they used for 23 hours a day, was the end product of a mindless, unguided process? Atheism doesn’t shoot itself in the foot, ladies and gentlemen. It’s far worse than that. It shoots itself in the brain, and that’s fatal.


Now, you see, the Christian, the believer in God, has a reason for doing science. It’s the reason that Galileo, Kepler, and Newton had, which is why science exploded in the 16th and 17th centuries. It’s that they expected and believed science could be done, because they believed in a rational creator.


You see, faith lies behind science, both faith in God, and then the next step, faith in the rational intelligibility of the universe that springs from a belief in a rational God. I hope you’re with me so far, because these arguments are enormously important. And you’ll notice they’re dead simple. There are no tricks here. These arguments are very simple indeed, but the fog is such that when a high-powered person says, God is a delusion.

你看,科学背后是信仰,既有对上帝的信仰,也有对宇宙理性可理解性的信仰,这种信仰源于对理性上帝的信仰。我希望到目前为止你能理解我的观点,因为这些论点非常重要。你会注意到它们非常简单。这里没有花招。这些论点确实非常简单,但迷雾如此之深,以至于当一个有权势的人说上帝是一种幻觉时。

(Vous voyez, la foi se cache derrière la science, à la fois la foi en Dieu et l’étape suivante, la foi dans l’intelligibilité rationnelle de l’univers qui découle de la croyance en un Dieu rationnel. J’espère que vous me suivez jusqu’ici, car ces arguments sont extrêmement importants. Et vous remarquerez qu’ils sont d’une simplicité déconcertante. Il n’y a pas d’astuces ici. Ces arguments sont très simples en effet, mais le brouillard est tel que lorsqu’une personne de haut rang dit que Dieu est une illusion, elle se met à trembler.)


As Stephen Hawking put it the other day when interviewed, he said, ‘Belief in God religion is a fairy story for people afraid of the dark’, and I was asked to comment, so I did in light fashion: ‘Atheism is a fairy story for people afraid of the light.’ You shouldn’t say that. Statements like that don’t prove anything.


You see, the big problem that comes out of that is this, that statements by scientists aren’t always statements of science. Can I repeat that? Statements by scientists are not always statements of science. You get Carl Sagan, very famous, with his TV series, Cosmos, the universe is all that there is, was, or ever shall be. It’s not a statement of science. It’s a statement of his atheistic belief, that’s all it is.


Now you see, ladies and gentlemen, once we clear that fog, we can come to the central thing, because what we got next to see is that God isn’t a theory, He’s a person.


And that brings me to the other way of accessing knowledge about God. We can read certain things from the universe, I believe. We can see there’s a rational intelligence behind the universe. The Bible itself claims that. Paul said in one of his most famous writings, ‘the invisible things of God, that is His eternal power and Godhead, that there is a God, are perceived, are clearly seen from the things that are made.’ Nature isn’t neutral. It’s got the signature of God written all over it, but that’s as far as you get.


But you see, think about it logically. Where are we? We’re persons. We’re not just theories. My wife isn’t a theory, I can guarantee you that. She’s a person.


Are we to imagine that the source of our being is less than personal? Of course not. That flies against every analogy we know. And the God who now reveals Himself in the Bible.


Now here’s the important thing, ladies and gentlemen. The moment I mention the word reveal, all people get very allergic and nervous of saying, we believe in rationality, we believe in reason. We don’t, quoting Richard Dawkins, believe in holy books. As if you didn’t need your reason to read a holy book.


Revelation and reason don’t contradict each other. Have you ever met anybody that can read the Bible without using their reason? Of course not. That’s not the issue.


The issue is this, ladies and gentlemen: IS THIS UNIVERSE A CLOSED SYSTEM OF CAUSE AND EFFECT OR IS IT OPEN? And if it’s open, here we are thinking, feeling, rational beings with all the emotions and richness of our capacity for music and love and art.


Is there a God who’s revealed Himself? The claim of the Bible is there is.


Now here’s the thing. I could analyze you with a scanning, tunneling microscope of the most extreme advanced character and never get to know you. The only way I’ll ever get to know you is if you talk, you know, and reveal yourself to me. And that’s the only way you’ll ever get to know me.


Now here’s the exciting thing about Christianity, is that the claim is: ‘In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth…’


‘And God said, ‘Let Us make man in Our own image.’ Do you realize what that means? The stars and the galaxies that you see so clearly sometimes overhead in Perth, they’re not made in God’s image. They show His glory. You were made in God’s image. Just think of the value that gives you. I think that’s powerful stuff, to be able to tell men and women that they’re of infinite value and dignity, made in the image of God and therefore creative with all those talents and gifts.


But the sad thing is we find a world that’s broken and bruised. It looks as if a bomb had hit it.


Dan talked about an explosion in his own heart. It’s a good metaphor. It’s a bit like Christchurch Cathedral, isn’t it? Traces of beauty we can see, but lots of damage through earthquake or Coventry Cathedral. Traces of beauty and damage through bombing. And the world presents us with a mixed picture. But that doesn’t take away from the fact that we’re made in the image of God. It just points out that.


We see that. It’s a living memory, but we feel a disjointedness between the concept of being made in the image of God and the perfection and the mess and the stuff that keeps foaming up like vomit inside our own personality and destroying us from the inside. And every one of you young people know you’re only one click away from disaster at any time of the contemporary age. One click.


HOW DO YOU BATTLE WITH IT?


I grew up in a very different world. I was so protected that I see my children, my grandchildren, surrounded by a sea of intellectual sharks and moral sharks, wanting to destroy their lovely personalities. How could you recover that?


And here’s the brilliance of the Christian message: God' WORD became human.


Now ladies and gentlemen, one of the biggest arguments in our society is our human being special. Your famous Professor Peter Singer, whom I’ve debated, thinks not. I think he’s wrong. And one of the most powerful arguments for humans being special is that God became one. How about that? That’s big stuff, isn’t it?


You see, Dan pointed it out. He said the claims Jesus made were incredible. We miss them if we don’t sit and reflectively take them seriously. He stood in our world at the age of about 30 and said, ‘I AM THE TRUTH.’ He didn’t simply say, I say the truth, although that’s true. He said, I am the truth.


What? You mean if you ask the truth about this universe and you reduce it to atoms and elementary particles and ask what’s the truth about them and keep on asking, you’ll come to Jesus Christ who will stand in front of you and say, ‘I AM THE TRUTH.’ Is that big enough for you?


The thing that I find sad about my atheist friends is the tininess of their world, ladies and gentlemen. They don’t have a God to begin it. It was some kind of spontaneous combustion, and we could talk about that. I’ve written a book about it. And they don’t have a God to sum it up. They live in a tiny space, and the space for each individual is 70 years, give or take a little bit. And then the silence, they believe, and the blackness of an eternal tomb. What sort of an existence is that?


Richard Dawkins, when I put a tomb, said, yes, it’s bleak, but that doesn’t mean it’s false. I said Richard is bleak, but that doesn’t mean it’s true.


HOW WOULD WE KNOW THAT THIS WORLD ISN’T A CLOSED SYSTEM? Because in space, time, and history, God incarnate, Jesus Christ, was crucified, died, and broke the death barrier by rising again from the dead. That’s why I’m sitting here. You see, you can’t believe that stuff as a scientist. I mean, after all, miracles are violations of the laws of nature. Come on, you can’t believe that stuff. David Hume proved it long ago. No, he didn’t. So easy to see he didn’t, you know.


And Lewis, again, pointed it out brilliantly in the 1940s. I’m staying in a hotel in Perth. I put $100 into my drawer last night. I put $100 tonight, and tomorrow I find $50. What does that mean? That the laws of arithmetic have been broken, or the laws of Western Australia? Oh, I’m glad you laughed, because you see the difference between the two uses of the word law.


We get so hung up on this. We think laws in science are somehow causes, or they’re like a law that’s passed by the government that you violate. Notice the word violate. That’s nonsense.


How did you know a thief had taken $150 out of my drawer? Because you know the laws of arithmetic. That’s how people realized that something spectacular had happened when Jesus reappeared from the dead, because they knew that dead people don’t just come wandering about after they died. If they didn’t know that dead people normally remain dead, they wouldn’t have been remotely surprised to see Jesus. And when He appeared from the dead with such enormous authority and power, enough to transform 11 men into men that conquered the ancient world and brought the message of Christianity throughout the world.


There’s evidence in history that the thing is real. As a famous saint and historian put it, there’s a resurrection-shaped hole in history. But that’s long ago, ladies and gentlemen.


And so I come to the next set of reasons. WHY I’M A CHRISTIAN? Because it works, ladies and gentlemen.


You see, Christianity is testable. You say, no, it’s not testable. You only get testable things in science. No, you don’t.


Jesus Christ promises you that if tonight you take all that stuff that’s plugging up your conscience and your heart and repent of him, and deliberately as a step say, Lord, You died for this. I don’t understand how it works, but You died for this, to take all that mess upon Yourself. I don’t know how You did it, and I don’t know why You did it. But I see that You did do it, and I’m prepared to trust You. He promises you that you will tonight receive forgiveness, receive eternal life, a new quality of life, and that will make, in times, such a difference to you as it’s made in Dan.


How many hundreds of times I’ve seen marriages saved, where people were fighting each other out on the courts, and suddenly they come to encounter Christ, and they realize that both of them are desperately wrong, and they seek forgiveness, and they repent, and you’ve got a marriage to the foundations of a happy home, and some more children have a chance, a half-decent chance of a life.


How many times have I seen drugs that are poisoning someone’s brain, got rid of? Back to sanity, back to life, back to meaningfulness. You know, when you see that, you begin to think there’s something in this business. People who’ve been friendless, and lonely, and isolated.


Ladies and gentlemen, the trouble is we’ve believed a colossal lie. It’s been going on for millennia. It’s that God is somehow against us. Christopher Edson said to me in a debate, he said, ‘Who would want a great North Korean dictator in the sky watching you?’


I said, ‘Christopher, you make me very sad. Who would want a woman in their house watching them all the time?’


‘My wife is in the house all the time.’


I said, ‘Christopher, if the person watching you is not a North Korean dictator, but someone who loves you, it’s wonderful to have them in your home and in your life.’


Ladies and gentlemen, don’t believe the lie that God is out to repress and suppress all your human flourishing. On page two of the Bible, you’ll see how that entered into the world, how the enemy said to the first humans, God has said in the day you eat that, you should surely die because He knows you eat it, you’ll be as God’s knowing good and evil. And they fell for it, and they’ve been falling for it ever since.


Just ask yourself, do you think of God as an enemy? If you do, you believe the lie. It’s as simple as that. And the wonderful thing to discover is God’s forest.


‘God so loved the world…’


Listen to those words, they’re magnificent.


‘God so loved the world that He gave His only Son that whoever believes on Him should not perish but have eternal life.’


I mean, those words are magnificent. And you see, ladies and gentlemen, I’m a Christian because Jesus doesn’t compete with anybody on this score. There’s nobody else in all of history offers me credibly forgiveness and eternal life. So I’m not insulting any other religion by taking it from Him when nobody else offers it. Do you see that? It’s very important you do see it. This is a huge thing.


WHY AM I A CHRISTIAN? Do you know the biggest thing in all my life? Even as a professor at Oxford, whatever that means, is that I’m loved, ladies and gentlemen, loved at a level that I will never begin to understand, a love that has power over death. I love my father, but I’ve lost him. No, I haven’t. I’ll see him again. Because Jesus is risen. It means death is not the end. That gives real hope. That gives us a real message.


And also, ladies and gentlemen, it brings back into the world a concept that’s rapidly disappearing, and that’s the concept of morality and ultimate justice.


Listen. Don’t get on the atheist bus before you know where it’s going. WHERE’S IT GOING? Well, listen to Richard Dawkins describe the bleakness of the universe. This universe is just exactly what you’d expect it to be, he says. If it bottomed, there’s no good, there’s no evil, there’s no justice. DNA just is, and we dance to its music. That’s all there is to life, ladies and gentlemen.


The terrorist bombers, the young man from my country who proudly held in his hand the head of a journalist, in all our papers today, is just dancing to the music of his DNA. Who could blame him for that?


Ideas have consequences, and if you teach a generation of young people in Australia or anywhere else that all forms of behavior are acceptable, that we’re simply animals, they’ll start behaving like that, they have already. How can you blame them?


And if Hitler gets all the power, all he has to do is blow his brains out when he’s cornered. He never faced justice, if there is no justice.


And you see, this is another reason why I cannot conceivably accept atheism. I’ve been to Auschwitz many times. The vast majority of people who’ve ever lived will never see justice if atheism is true. The vast majority of people currently alive on planet Earth will never see justice because they won’t get it in this life. And there’s no other life of which they could conceivably get it.


IS THEN OUR CONCEPT OF JUSTICE AND MORALITY AN ILLUSION? No, it is not, because ‘God has appointed a day in which He will judge the world by the Man He has appointed and given evidence to all men, not just to believers, by raising Him from the dead.’


It’s a magnificent thing that there’s going to be a judgment. The people aren’t going to get away with it, but that makes some of us tremble, doesn’t it? We’re not going to get away with it, are we? And that’s why the Christian message is utterly unique, because Jesus stood in our world and He said, ‘Truly I say to you, whoever hears My word and believes on Him that sent Me has already eternal life and shall not come into judgment, but has already passed from death to life.’


You say, do you really believe that? Yes, I do. Why? Because of who Jesus is, ladies and gentlemen. He invented the atom. Richard Dawkins knocked me once for believing that Jesus walked on water.


And I said to him, ‘Jesus invented water in the first place. Maybe it’s not such a big deal that He could walk on it.’


I’m done. You’re going to have time for questions, but I appeal to you young people. I want you never to forget this evening, because, you see, I’m telling you what so many people, when they reach their 50s and 60s, wish they’d heard when they were 17 and 18. Don’t waste your life. Invest it in reality, but you’ll only believe in reality if there’s evidence. You’d probably come with a Christian friend tonight. Squeeze the guts out of them to get the information out of them what Christianity is and means. Plague them. It’s so important to be sure.


I understand people who are not sure, but you can be sure. Why? Because it’s not you simply seeking God, God seeking you. And He came into the world to find you. Wouldn’t it be wonderful if you met Him tonight? Thank you very much.


Thank you.


MODERATOR: Well, thank you, Professor Lennox. We are going to have some time now to look at the questions that you’ve sent in. And so John will take us through those, and then I’ll be back up to finish the night. So I’ll leave you with John again.


JOHN LENNOX: Good. Well, thank you for these questions, ladies and gentlemen. Why do so many kids who’ve grown up in church drift away from God and church? The main reason given in our country is because they don’t answer our questions.


Let me speak to those of you who do go to church. We need to get our act together. We have been scandalously lax in not facing the questions of a younger generation. Many in the older generation think they’ve settled all the things, and a new raft of questions have come up to which I find even many ministers and churches have no answers. And if you’re talking irrelevancy in a church on Sunday, you lose everybody. Of course, you lose them. Because they watch TV, it’s professionally done, they see answers, they see wonderful discussions of science and of music and so on. So we’ve got to get our act together. So that’s one of the main reasons.


There are other reasons, of course. People sometimes discover, rightly, that Christ makes moral demands, that they’re not prepared for them. They think they can run the automobile that is human life without the instructions, and they don’t realize that the instructions are written by Somebody who loves us. And we have a great task to do, to repair that, to show living Christianity to our young people. Have them into your home.


How many of my children’s friends would come into the home and they would just say to my sons and my daughter, your home is so different, why is that? Be a witness. Engage. All of these things are so vastly important, and I’d be tempted to preach a sermon about it, but I’m not.


What do you think about the academics and theologians who insist the passion narratives are legendary in character, that nothing can really be known about Jesus’ resurrection?


I don’t think very much about them, simply because that ancient historians who know more about ancient history aren’t in that category. You’ve got a very famous ancient historian here in Australia. His name is Edwin Judge. If you want to answer that question, read Edwin Judge. Ancient historians don’t doubt the existence of Jesus. I’ve never met one, because the evidence is much more powerful than many people think. The evidence is far stronger for the authenticity, say, of the Gospel of Luke than it is for Caesar’s Gallic Wars, which some of us studied in school, to our pain or our delight, in my case, delight, but we’re not taught that.


Most people have no idea of the documentary evidence for the authenticity of Scripture. Now, if the person who asked this question is really interested in it, they will follow that up. There’s a lot of literature here, but start with Edwin Judge, who as an ancient historian is world class in his thinking.


What do you think about Christianity being the enemy of free thinking? Well, I think it’s entirely wrong, but it is an impression that some Christians have either deliberately or unwittingly given. Ladies and gentlemen, it should be obvious if you’ve ever read the commandments that the first commandment is to love the Lord your God with all your mind, soul, heart, and strength, to love the Lord with your mind. How did that commandment get lost in some spiritual traditions? You are insulting God if you don’t love God with your mind. That’s one of the reasons Christianity goes dead in so many professional people. They love their business with their mind. I even know some people that know the football scores for the last 50 years off by heart. But when it comes to the Bible, they don’t know it. They haven’t got to know it. They go to church. They say their prayers and so on, but they’ve long since lost any cutting edge of witness because when they open their mouths about their faith, it’s inarticulate, and it’s so puerile that their colleagues see it, and so they’re silenced forever.


And you’re living in a society, and so am I, where the biggest pressure is to privatize our faith. Keep it to yourself. You want to believe in Jesus? That’s nice for you, but don’t you bring it into the public space. Ladies and gentlemen, I’m going to bring it into the public space. You need to get the courage to do the same thing. Your public space isn’t necessarily this size. It’s the person you know at work. Or are you living in a silent world when it comes to Christianity and a loud world when it comes to music and football and everything else and politics?


Just analyze your conversations of the last week. How much time have you invested in dissecting the previous prime minister of Australia? And how much time have you spent discussing God with people? That’ll tell you something.


How much time have you spent looking at a screen? And how much time have you spent looking at Scripture? We’ll never reach this generation if we play religion. And some of you young people, and I challenge you, if you’re going to influence this world for God, you need to take Scripture seriously and God’s Word seriously and get into it and spend hours in it. Immerse your lives in it. And then you will not have people around you saying, why is Christianity the enemy of thought?


I grew up in a home where Christianity was the most expansive, most intellectually searching belief system that I could even imagine. And when I met the others, I found them so cramping that it just wasn’t true. Forgive me, I might wax eloquent about that, you see.


How do you feel about the Western world moving away from Christianity? How do you respond?


Well, you know, it’s like the starfish. There are millions of starfish stranded on the beach and the man is going along and he picks up one and he throws it back. And somebody says, well, you’re not helping much. It makes no difference. Well, he said, it does to that starfish. And that’s the way to start, ladies and gentlemen.


If we don’t break the barrier of silence individually, we’ll never do anything. We are brilliant at leaving it to the pastor and leaving it to the other person. This is not my task. The New Testament doesn’t imagine a silent, non-evangelizing Christian. We’re not talking about the gift of evangelism like Billy Graham. We’re talking about the command to answer people’s questions. And the apostle Peter says, always be ready to give an answer to those that ask you. He envisages dialogue. Have you noticed that? And our task is to provoke dialogue. Right.


As you brought up C.S. Lewis, Aslan defeated the white witch in the famous book, ‘Lion, Witch, and Wardrobe’,what was the link between that and Jesus? Why actually did Christ have to die as if it were a rule that he had to obey?


It wasn’t a rule He had to obey. He laid His life down freely, ladies and gentlemen, because He loved you and me. And why did He have to die? Because sin is a killer. Haven’t you realized it yet? Sin is the biggest problem every government in the world faces today. Now, we think of sin usually in a couple of areas, like sex and so on.


So, let’s think of it. It’s messing up. It’s our innate human capacity to make an absolute mess of things. It’s the biggest problem. It’s a killer. It’s killing people in Perth tonight, and they’ll be dead before the morning. I can’t explain to you how Christ’s death deals with it. I can’t tell you what gravity is, ladies and gentlemen. Nobody knows what it is, so don’t expect me to be able to explain something that’s infinitely deeper. But I believe in Christ’s death as effective because it works and because it makes sense.


SO, WHAT IS MY VIEW ON EVOLUTION AND CREATION?


Considerable and extensive. And I’ve written a book on it called God’s Undertaker: Has Science Buried God? And I’ve written a second book on it called, that’s the main title. The subtitle is Seven Days That Divide the World. Ladies and gentlemen, this is a huge topic. We’d need a whole evening on it. If you’re serious, just Google my name. I have dozens of lectures on this. But you can’t, whatever you believe about evolution and creation, you cannot deduce atheism from evolution. But if you want to know why, just have a look. We can’t go into that in detail.


WHAT IS THE BIGGEST FAITH SHAKER YOU HAVE FACED AND HOW DO YOU ANSWER IT?


It’s an important question because, you see, the way faith grows is by questioning it and exposing it to its opposite. Precisely because I grew up in a strong Christian environment. I’m not like Dan, you see. I have no idea what it’s like to be a young adult and not be a believer. He does. So, those of you who are like that should listen to him and talk to him. I don’t know what it’s like, so I needed a guide. C.S. Lewis was a major guide. But what I spent my entire life doing is exposing my faith to questioning.


What is the biggest faith shaker?


Well, it could be suffering, couldn’t it? That’s the hardest question, I face. I arrived in Christchurch two days after the earthquake. I preached at the biggest service that had been held in Christchurch for many years on the Sunday after. I had to meet people who’d lost their relatives.


Now, this is the hard question, ladies and gentlemen. It’s a very hard question. And there are no simplistic answers to it. And the trouble is, you see, that my heart goes out to people that have rejected God because of pain and suffering, who can’t make any sense particularly of what one might call senseless pain. And many people become atheists because of it. And I can understand that up to a certain extent. And they just say that’s the way the universe is. It shows there’s no mind behind it. There’s certainly no love behind it. You can talk about intelligence behind the universe if you like, but please don’t talk to me about a personal God. Understand that.


But it’s not good enough, ladies and gentlemen. Firstly, if you become an atheist because of it, you’re faced with an intellectual problem immediately. What is evil? Richard Dawkins takes the logical consequences of his belief system and he says there’s no good, there’s no evil. And yet he endlessly talks about the problem of evil. There’s a disconnect there. He doesn’t realize which something that Nietzsche realized, but Nietzsche then was a real atheist and he understood the consequences.


And Nietzsche said if you get God out of the equation, you’ll end up by getting all values out of the equation. And you’ll get good and evil out of the equation. They’re running out of our society now. There are staggering surveys of North American young college-aged kids who simply, on the basis of clever questioning, reveal they have no idea of what good and evil are. Now that’s a serious side issue.


But you see, atheism doesn’t get rid of the suffering, does it? In fact, it could be argued it makes it 10,000 times worse because it gets rid of all hope. I have a problem with pain and suffering because I continue to believe in God.


But you see, ladies and gentlemen, this brings us straight. The only place in the whole of the universe I see a way into this question is the cross of Jesus. Because at the very least, if that was God on the cross, what’s He doing there? I never forget being in one of the largest synagogues in the world and I was trying to help a young Jewish lady understand the Yiddish that the rabbi was talking. And my Yiddish is very poor and I speak German, so I was doing my best. I’m afraid I was taking translator’s license and we were in an exhibition of the festivals of Israel beginning with the Passover and so on.


So I took a little bit of liberty since I didn’t understand everything to explain that this had found fulfillment in Jesus, the Messiah. So I was gently adding to what was being said. And eventually I hadn’t noticed that in the middle of the room there was a big montage and it was the Gate of Auschwitz, Arbeit Macht Frei, ‘work will set you free’. And she stood, she was a very intelligent architect, put her hands out like this across the door and she said, ‘What does your religion make of that?’


And I said, ‘I wouldn’t insult your memory of your parents who were gassed behind those gates by giving you some simple explanation.’ I said, ‘You know, you’ve asked me and I’m going to answer your question but it’s going to be very difficult. You know that I believe that Jesus — Yeshua was Hamashiach, the Messiah’. And she nodded with her hands still out like this.


I said, ‘The next bit is even harder because He came to be God incarnate.’ And I said, that’s very hard for you to accept but just try and follow me and try and just accept for a moment that that might be true. You know He died on the cross and she nodded still with her hands out like this. I said, ‘If that’s God on the cross, what’s it saying?’


I said, ‘At the very least, it’s telling me that God has not remained distant from the problem of human suffering but has Himself become part of it.’


And the tears just burst from her face as she still stood forming a cross and she said these words which I shall never forget. She said, ‘Why has no one ever told me that about my Messiah before?’

为什么以前没人告诉我有关我的救世主的事情?

(Pourquoi personne ne m’a jamais dit cela à propos de mon Messie auparavant ?)


He didn’t only die, ladies and gentlemen, He rose from the dead. That’s what gives me hope. There is to be a judgment. God will see that justice is done and he will do it and it will be seen to be done. Atheism is nothing of that. I said that to you earlier.


So I think there’s a way in but we must do it with sympathy. It can take years to work off the loss or the abuse. We may never really get over it but to discover a God that loves us and is prepared to surround us with His love and to promise us one day a new body to replace the one that’s been abused. That’s a magnificent thing to be able to tell people.

所以我认为有办法,但我们必须怀着同情心去做。可能需要数年时间才能消除失去或虐待的痛苦。我们可能永远无法真正克服它,但要发现一个爱我们、准备用他的爱包围我们并承诺有一天会用一个新的身体来取代被虐待的身体的上帝。能够告诉人们这是一件了不起的事情。

(Je pense donc qu’il y a une façon de s’en sortir, mais nous devons le faire avec compassion. Il peut falloir des années pour surmonter la perte ou l’abus. Nous ne nous en remettrons peut-être jamais vraiment, mais découvrir un Dieu qui nous aime et qui est prêt à nous entourer de son amour et à nous promettre un jour un nouveau corps pour remplacer celui qui a été abusé. C’est une chose magnifique à pouvoir dire aux gens.)


There’s a related problem and I’m going to stop with this because my time’s up. HOW CAN I BE CONVINCED THAT CHRISTIANITY IS THE ONLY TRUTH ABOUT GOD? Why should it hold more credibility than Buddhism or Hinduism?

我如何确信基督教是有关神的唯一真理?为什么它比佛教或印度教更可信?

(COMMENT PUIS-JE ÊTRE CONVAINCU QUE LE CHRISTIANISME EST LA SEULE VÉRITÉ SUR DIEU ? Pourquoi devrait-il avoir plus de crédibilité que le bouddhisme ou l'hindouisme ?)


Well, ladies and gentlemen, you have to decide that on the basis of evidence. Which of them really makes sense and answers your questions? On a historical level, if we simply take Judaism, Christianity and Islam, my Jewish friends believe that Jesus died and did not rise. My Muslim friends believe that he didn’t die. I believe He both died and rose. Those three things cannot be simultaneously true.

好吧,女士们先生们,你们必须根据证据来决定。哪一个才是真正有道理的,并回答了你的问题?从历史角度来看,如果我们只考虑犹太教、基督教和伊斯兰教,我的犹太朋友相信耶稣死了,但没有复活。我的穆斯林朋友相信他没有死。我相信他既死了又复活了。这三件事不可能同时成立。

(Mesdames et messieurs, vous devez décider sur la base de preuves. Laquelle de ces deux affirmations est vraiment logique et répond à vos questions ? Sur le plan historique, si nous prenons simplement le judaïsme, le christianisme et l’islam, mes amis juifs croient que Jésus est mort et n’est pas ressuscité. Mes amis musulmans croient qu’il n’est pas mort. Je crois qu’il est mort et ressuscité à la fois. Ces trois affirmations ne peuvent pas être vraies en même temps.)


So you’ve got to ask yourself the question. But the reason I’m a Christian is because you see religion in general is generally depicted as an entrance gate followed by a way, which I’ll draw a wiggly line, followed by a judgment. You know the kind of thing, like the University of Western Australia. You get in through some exam, some ceremony and you’re on the way and your professors or gurus or imams or priests to help you. But even they can’t guarantee you’re going to be accepted at the end.


And however kind your professors at university are, they cannot guarantee that you’re going to be accepted at the end. Why? Because the basic principle is your merits. And how many times have I sat with someone from religions, including Christianity, by the way, who said that is what my religion teaches? It’s not what Christianity teaches, ladies and gentlemen.


And here’s the utterly revolutionary thing. Christianity is not a system of merit. And that’s why I can know tonight before I leave this place that God has accepted me. Because Christ has died for me.


I often illustrate it. I met my wife the first day at university. She was 16, but that’s a different story. She’s the most beautiful thing I’ve ever seen. Anyway.


Now, of course, I wanted to marry her eventually. So I came to her one day and I presented her with a cookbook. And it’s full of laws, you know. If you’re going to make an apple cake, thou shalt take so many grams of sugar, thou shalt take so many kilos of flour, thou shalt take so much water and you should boil it and mix it and so on.


So I said, now Sally, it’s going to be like this, you see. I couldn’t possibly accept you now. I mean, if you follow the prescriptions in this book for 40 years, let’s say, then I think about accepting you. So how about becoming my wife? Do you think I did that? Why are you laughing?


Do you know that’s how millions of people think of God? You wouldn’t insult a fellow human being by suggesting your relationship with them was based on merit, would you? And yet millions of people think exactly that of God. If I try and keep the rules, then perhaps one day you will accept me. That’s slavery, ladies and gentlemen.


And it’s one of the biggest reasons that people are running away from religion. Because Christianity has been interpreted like that, and it’s the exact opposite.


You imagine my wife, having tried this for a year or two and really taking it seriously and wanting to bake an apple cake, and she suddenly realizes that if she doesn’t do it perfectly, she’s back to her mother. And she turns the knob up to 1000 degrees centigrade, and out comes a burnt offering. It’s exactly what happens.


And people that try to keep the rules become cramped, they become narrowed, they feel oppressed, and they say, God, I’m not remotely interested in You. And they miss the whole point of a God who so loves them, He spreads His arms out and across and say, you can’t make it old chap on your own. I’m prepared to die for you and give you a free pardon right now.


Ladies and gentlemen, do you know why my wife is such a good cook? Because my acceptance on her doesn’t depend on it. I don’t go around the world talking about God like tonight in order and hoping that one day God will accept me. I do it because He has accepted me.


Do you see the difference? And you will know, those of you who are married, that the essence of a marriage is that security of acceptance that’s independent of the minor vagaries of the way we behave. Why would we insult God by suggesting to Him we could merit it? And you see here, Christianity isn’t competing with anybody because it’s utterly unique.


Ladies and gentlemen, it is five past nine. I have sinned massively in going five minutes over my time. Thank you very much indeed.


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