Anatomy & Physiology I
Introduction Chapter 1
I. Beginning Definitions
A. Anatomy
B. Gross Anatomy
C. Systematic Anatomy
D. Regional Anatomy
E. Microscopic Anatomy
F. Physiology
II. Levels of Organization
A. Chemical
B. Cellular
C. Tissue
D. Organ
E. Organ System
F. Organism
III. Life
A. Characteristics of Life
1. maintain Boundaries
2. movement
3. responsiveness
4. assimilation
5. metabolism
a. catabolism
b. anabolism
6. reproduction
7. growth
B. Homeostasis
1. set point
2. normal range
3. negative feedback
a. components
1) sender
2) control center
3) effector
4. positive feedback
IV. Anatomical Position
A. Prone
B. Supine
V. Anatomical Directional Terms
A. Superior
B. Inferior
C. Anterior, Ventral
D. Posterior, Dorsal
E. Medial
F. Lateral
G. Superficial
H. Deep
I. Proximal
J. Distal
K. Parietal - closer to the body wall
L. Visceral - closer to the internal organ
VI. Planes of Section
A. Sagittal
B. Median (midsagittal)
C. Frontal (coronal)
D. Transverse
E. Oblique
VII. Body Architecture
A. Bilateral Symmetry
B. Regional Terms
1. Axial Division
2. Appendicular Division
VIII. Body Cavities
A. Dorsal
1. cranial
2. spinal
B. Ventral (anterior)
1. thoracic cavity
2. abdominopelvic cavity
a. abdominal cavity
b. pelvic cavity
IX. Membranes
A.Serous membrane
1. components
a. parietal serosa
b. visceral serosa
c. serous fluid
2. Examples
a. pleura
b. pericardium
c. peritoneum
X. Abdominopelvic Regions
A. Umbilical
B. Epigastric
C. Hypogastric (pubic)
D. right & left Iliac or Inguinal
E. right & left Lumbar
F. right & left Hypochondriac
XI. Abdominopelvic Quadrants
A. right upper quadrant
B. left upper quadrant
C. right lower quadrant
D. left lower quadrant
XII. Other body cavities
BASIC CHEMISTRY Chapter 2
I. Introduction
1. Energy
2. Matter
a. Elements
1) Chemical (atomic) symbols
II. Atom
1. Protons, neutrons, & electrons
a. Nucleus
2. Charge
3. Differences
1) Atomic Number (Z)
III. Electrons
A. Placement
1. electron orbitals (shells)
B. Orbital capacities
1. Filled
a. chemically inert
1) noble gases
b. Valence
IV. Bonds
A. Bond Background
1. molecules
a. macromolecules
1) cells
2. Ion
a. Symbols
1) cation
2) anion
B. Ionic bond
1. Transfer
2. Repercussions
C. Covalent Bond
1. Sharing
V. Writing bonded atoms
A. Formulas
1. Molecular formula
2. Structural formula
VI. Polar & NonPolar Covalent Bonds
A. Polar covalent bonds
1. Electronegativity
2. Effect
a. somewhat negative
b. somewhat positive
B. Non-polar covalent bonds
C. Consequences
1. Solubilities
a. solute
b. solvent
D. Hydrogen Bonds
1. Note:
a. weak
VII. Chemical Reactions
1. Reactant
2. Product
A. Chemical equation
B. Types of reactions
1. Synthesis reaction
2. Decomposition reaction
3. Exchange reaction
Biochemistry Chap. 2 Cont.
I. Biochemistry
II. Inorganic cpds
A. WATER
1. Important properties
a. High heat capacity
b. High heat of vaporization
c. Universal solvent
1) Transport medium
2) Lubricant
d. Reactivity
1) Hydrolysis rxns
2) Dehydration rxns
B. Salts
1. electrolytes
C. Respiratory Gases
D. Acids and Bases
1. Acid
2. Base
a. hydroxyl ions
3.Neutralization
4. pH scale
a. 7.40
E. Buffers
1. How Work
2. Strong acid
3. Weak acid
4. Strong base
5. Weak base
6. Physiological Buffers
a. carbonic acid-bicarbonate system
b. Phosphate
7. Titration Curve
1) midpoint
Biochemistry Chapter 2b
I. Organic Substances
1. Carbon
a. electroneutral
b. 4 covalent bonds
c. small
A. Carbohydrates
1. monosaccharide
2. disaccharides
3. polysaccharides
1) monomers
2) polymers
B. Lipids
1. Triglycerides
a. composition
1) fatty acids
2) glycerol
b. structure
1) saturated
2) unsaturated
2. Modified Triglycerides
a. phospholipids
1) amphipathic
b. others
3. Steroids
a. cholesterol
C. Proteins
1. amino acids
a. R group
2. assembly
a. peptide bond
3. structural levels
a. Primary
b. Secondary
1) alpha helix
2) beta sheet
c. Tertiary
1) globular
2) fibrous
d. Quaternary
4. Denaturation
5. Enzymes
1) E of activation
a. Cofactors
b. Naming = -ase
c. Enzyme anatomy
1) enzyme
2) substrate(s)
3) active site
4) product(s)
D. Nucleic Acids
1. Composition
a. Nucleotides
1) pentose sugar
2) bases
a) Adenine
b) Guanine
c) Cytosine
d) Thymine
e) Uracil
3) phosphate
2. Function
3. DNA vs RNA
a. sugar
b. structure
c. bases
d. half life
4. ATP
Cell Membrane Chapter 3a
I. Plasma membrane
A. Components
1. phospholipid bilayer
2. glycolipids
3. cholesterol
4. proteins
a. peripheral
b. integral
1) functions
a) receptors
- signal transduction
b) transport
- channels
- carriers
5. Fluid Mosaic Model
B. Specialized membrane structures
1. Microvilli
2. Membrane Junctions
a. tight junctions
b. desmosomes
c. gap junctions
C. Molecular movement across membranes
1. diffusion
2. facilitated diffusion
a) channels
a. osmosis
b. permeable vs selectively permeable
c. solutions
1) hypertonic solution
2) hypotonic solution
3) isotonic solution
3. Directed movement
a. active transport
1) pumps
D. Vesicular Transport
1. endocytosis
a. pinocytosis
b. phagocytosis
1) pseudopods
2. exocytosis
Cell Organelles Chapter 3b
I. Overview
II. Organelles
A. Nucleus
1. chromatin
2. chromosomes
3. nuclear envelope
4. nuclear pores
5. nucleolus
B. Mitochondria
C. Endoplasmic Reticulum
1. rough ER
a. ribosomes
2. smooth ER
D. Vesicles
E. Golgi apparatus
F. Lysosomes
1. endosomes
a. endolysosomes
2. phagosomes
a. phagolysosomes
G. Peroxisomes
H. Vacuoles
I. Cilia & Flagella
III. Cytoskeleton
A. Microfilaments
1. actin
B. Intermediate fibers
C. Microtubules
1. tubulin
D. Centrioles
1. basal bodies
Cell Reproduction & Growth Chapter 3c
I. Cell Life Cycle
A. Background
1. why divide
2. why not divide
B. Interphase
1. G1 Phase
2. S phase
1) DNA helicase
2) DNA polymerase
a) complementary base pairing
3) DNA ligase
3. G2 Phase
C. Mitotic phase
1. Mitosis
a. Phases
1) Prophase
a) mitotic spindle
2) Metaphase
a) metaphase plate
3) Anaphase
4) Telophase
2. Cytokinesis
a. cleavage furrow
II. Genetic Vocabulary
A. Genome
B. Chromosome
C. Gene
III. Genetic code
1. codon
2. degenerate
IV. Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
A. DNA ---> RNA ---> PROTEIN
V. Transcription
1. functional units
a. mRNA
b. tRNA
c. rRNA
A. "Steps" of Transcription
1. Initiation
a. RNA polymerase
1) promoter
2. Elongation
3. Termination
VI. Translation
1. location
2. Components
a. mRNA
b. ribosomes
c. tRNA
1) cloverleaf
2) charged
3) anticodon
A. "Steps" of Translation
1. Initiation
2. Elongation
a) P-site
b) A-site
3. Termination
1) stop codon
VII. Cellular Differentiation
A. In the lab
1. primary cells
2. immortalized cells
B. In the body
1. mature differentiated cells
2. stem cells
C. Available stem cells
1. adult stem cells
2. embryonic stem cells
a. pluripotent
3. induced pluripotent stem cells
Tissue Chapter 4
A. Definition
B. Tissue types
C. Histology
I. Epithelial Tissue
A. Functions
1. glands
B. Special Characteristics
1. cellularity
2. specialized contacts
3. polarity
a. apical surface
b. basal surface
4. Basement membrane
a. composition
1) basal lamina
2) reticular lamina
b. function
5. regeneration
C. Classification
a. simple
1) squamous
2) cuboidal
3) columnar
b. stratified
D. Types of Epithelia
1. simple epithelia
a. simple squamous epithelium
a) endothelium
b. simple cuboidal epithelium
c. simple columnar epithelium
2. stratified epithelia
a. stratified squamous epithelium
1) keratinized
2) non-keratinized
b. stratified cuboidal epithelium
c. stratified columnar epithelium
3. Other
a. pseudostratified columnar epithelium
b. transitional epithelium
E. Glands
1. exocrine glands
a. unicellular
1) mucin - mucus
b. multicellular exocrine glands
1) classification by structure
a) duct
- simple & compound
b) secretory unit
- tubular
- alveolar
- tubuloalveolar
2) classification by method of secretion
a) merocrine
b) holocrine
c) apocrine
II. Connective Tissue
A. Extracellular matrix
1. fibers
a. collagen fibers
b. elastic fibers
c. reticular fibers
2. ground substance
a. composition
1) interstitial fluid
2) cell adhesion proteins
3) proteoglycans
b. function
B. Cells
1. ... blasts
2. ... cytes
III. Connective Tissue Divisions
A. Connective Tissue Proper
1. Loose Connective Tissue
a. Areolar
1) what it does
2) structural features
a) fibers collagen and elastin
b) hyaluronic acid
3) cells = fibroblasts
b. Adipose
1) what it does
2) structural features
3) cells = adipocytes
c. Reticular
1) what it does
2) structural features
a) fibers = reticular fibers
3) cells = reticular cells
2. Dense Connective Tissue
a. Dense Regular Connective Tissue
1) structural features
2) cells = fibroblasts
3) forms
a) tendons & ligaments
b. Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
1) structural features
2) cells = fibroblasts
3) forms
c. Elastic
1) structural features
B. Special connective tissues
1. Cartilage
1) cells = chondrocytes
a. hyaline cartilage
1) structural features
2) location
3) function
b. elastic cartilage
1) structural features
2) location
3) function
c. Fibrocartilage
1) structural features
2) location
3) function
2. Bone
3. Blood
C. Nervous Tissue
1. cells
a. neurons
b. glial cells
D. Muscle Tissue
1. cells
a. myofilaments
1) actin & myosin
2. kinds
a. skeletal muscle
b. cardiac muscle
a) intercalated discs
c. smooth muscle
The Integumentary System (Chapter 5)
I. Background
1. Organ
2. System
A. Integumentary System
B. Functions
II. Epidermis
A. Stratum Basale
1. structure
2. cells
a. basal cells
b. Merkel cells
c. melanocytes
1) melanin
B. Stratum Spinosum
1. structure
2. cells
a. keratinocytes
b. Langerhans' cells
C. Stratum Granulosum
1. structure
2. cell products
1) keratin
2) keratohyalin
D. Stratum Lucidum
1. structure
2. cells
a. eleiden
E. Stratum Corneum
1. structure
2. cells
III. Dermis
A. Background
B. Layers
1. Papillary Layer
a. dermal papillae
2. Reticular Layer
IV. Hypodermis
V. Skin color
A. Melanin
VI. Accessory Skin Structures
A. Glands
1. sweat (Sudoriferous) Glands
a. Eccrine sweat glands
1) sudor
b. Apocrine sweat glands
c. Ceruminous glands
d. Mammary glands
2. sebaceous (Oil) Glands
a. sebum
B. Nails
1. Components
a. nail body
b. nail bed
c. nail root
d. nail fold
e. free edge
f. lunula
C. Hairs & Hair Follicles
1. Structure
a. shaft
1) layers
a) Medulla
b) Cortex
c) Cuticle
b. root
1) hair follicle
2) hair bulb
a) root hair plexus
3) hair papilla
4) hair matrix
5) arrector pili
2. color
3. functions
Bones and Skeletal Tissues (Chapter 6)
I. Functions of bones
II. Classification of bones
A. Long
B. Short
C. Flat
D. Irregular
E. Sesamoid
III. Gross Anatomy
A. Markings
1. projections
2. depressions & openings
3. articular surfaces
B. Types of Bone tissue
1. Compact
2. Spongy
a. trabeculae
C. Structure of a Typical Long bone
1. diaphysis
2. epiphyses
3. articular cartilage
4. periosteum
5. medullary cavity
a. yellow marrow
b. red marrow
6. endosteum
IV. Microscopic Anatomy
A. Compact bone
1. osteon
a. lamella
2. central (Haversian) canal
3. perforating (Volkmann's) canals
4. canaliculi
5. lacunae
6. osteocytes
B. spongy Bone
V. Bone Development
A. Cells
1. osteogenic cell
2. osteoblasts
3. osteocytes
4. osteoclasts
5. chondrocytes
B. Ossification
1. Intramembranous Ossification
a. ossification center
1) osteoid
2. Endochondral Ossification
a. perichondrium
b. primary ossification center
c. secondary ossification center
d. epiphyseal plate
1) proliferating zone
2) closure of the epiphyses
a) epiphyseal line
3. modeling
VI. Remodeling
VII. Bone Repair
A. fracture hematoma
B. internal callus
C. external callus
Joints Chapter 9
I. Background
A. Joints = articulations
B. Functions
II. Classification
A. Movement or functional
1. synarthroses
2. amphiarthroses
3. diarthroses
B. Structurally
1. Fibrous Joints
a. sutures
b. syndesmoses
c. gomphoses
2. Cartilaginous Joints
a. synchondroses
b. symphyses
3. Synovial Joints
a. structure
1) articular cartilage
2) joint cavity
3) articular capsule
a) fibrous capsule
b) synovial membrane
4) synovial fluid
5) reinforcing ligaments
a) extrinsic ligaments
b) intrinsic ligaments
c) intracapsular ligaments
b. menisci & articular discs
c. bursae
1) bursitis
III. Movement
A. Range of Motion
1. uniaxial
2. biaxial
3. multiaxial
B. Movements
1. gliding
2. angular
a. Flexion
b. Extension
c. Abduction
d. Adduction
3. special Case
a. Circumduction
4. Rotation
a. medial
b. lateral
C. Special Movements
1. movement of radius around ulna
a. Supination
b. Pronation
2. Movement of foot and ankle
a. Inversion
b. Eversion
c. Dorsiflexion
d. Plantar flexion
3. Movement parallel to ground
a. Protraction
b. Retraction
4. Movement Up & Down
a. Elevation
b. Depression
5. Opposition
6. Hyperextension
IV. Types of Synovial Joints
A. Plane joints
B. Hinge joints
C. Pivot joints
D. Condyloid joints = Ellipsoidal joints
E. Saddle joints
F. Ball-and-Socket joints
Skeletons 💀:
Bones of the Skull
Sutures of the Skull
Markings of the Skull
Bones of the Face
Inferior Superficial Skull
Upper Limb ( anterior view , posterior view) [ arm, forearm, hand ]
Scapula Markings
Humerus Markings
Forearm Markings (Radius , Ulna)
Carpals
Carpal bones (Carpometacarpal joint, Trapezoid, Capitate, Hamate, Trapezium, Pisiform, Scaphoid, Triquetrum, Lunate)
Lower Limb ( thigh, leg)
Femur Markings
Tibia & Fibula Markings
Foot
Tarsals
Vertebral Column
Vertebral Disc (Disc with spinal cord & nerves)
Intervertebral Disc
Thorax
Sternum Markings
Pelvic Girdle (Coxalbone)
Ilium (Ischium, Pubis)
Pelvic Girdle [Male vs Female]:
A. [Android (Male)opening 90° or less]
B. Gynecoid (Female)opening 100° or more]
Sacrum
Ilium
Pubis
Ischium
Pubis Symphysis
Acetabulum
Nervous System Chapter 12
I. Functions
II. Organization
A. Central nervous system (CNS)
B. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
1. Afferent (sensory) division
a. somatic
b. visceral afferent fibers
2. Efferent (motor) division
a. Somatic nervous system
b. Autonomic nervous system
1) Enteric nervous system
III. Cells
A. Neurons
1. cell body
2. processes
a. dendrites
b. axon
1) nerve fiber
2) axon hillock
3) telodendrion, terminal branches
IV. Pathway Overview
A. Sensation (afferent) neuron
1. action potential
B. Integration or Association Neurons
a. cerebral cortex
C. Response neurons
V. Neuroglia = glial cells
A.Astrocytes
B. Microglia
C. Ependymal cells
1. blood brain barrier (bbb)
D. Oligodendrocytes
1. myelin sheaths
E. Satellite cells
F. Schwann cells
a. Nodes of Ranvier
b. myelin
a) white matter
- tract
- nerve
b) grey matter
- nucleus
- ganglion
VI. Neurophysiology
A. Resting membrane potential
1. Polarized
2. Membrane potential = Volt
a. resting potential
B. The Impulse or Signal Initiation
a. Depolarization
b. Repolarization
C. Refractory period
D. Impulse Transmission / Propagation
1. wave of depolarization
2. wave of repolarization
3. action potential
E. Continuous conduction
F. Saltatory conduction
a. nodes of Ranvier
VII. Properties
A. Threshold
B. Accommodation
VIII. Classification of Neurons
A. Structural
1. Multipolar
2. Bipolar
3. Unipolar
1) distal process
2) central process
B. Functional
1. Sensory (afferent) neurons
2. Motor (efferent) neurons
3. Interneurons (association) neurons
IX. Synapse
A. Synaptic cleft
B. Presynaptic neuron
C. Synaptic knob
D. Postsynaptic neuron
E. Functioning
F. Notes:
1. One-way
2. Chemical `attack' point
X. Classification of Neurotransmitters
A. Structure
1. Acetylcholine
2. Biogenic amines
3. Amino acids
4. Peptides = neuropeptides
5. Novel Messengers
B. Function
1. Effects
a. Excitatory
b. Inhibitory
2. Mechanism of Action
a. Direct
b. Indirect
1) second messenger
Neuron Anatomy
Neuron Types
•Cell body
•Dendrites
•Axon
•Axon terminal
Nerve Wrappings
•axon
•myelin sheath
•fascicle
Anatomy of the Nervous System - Chapter 13
I. CNS
II. Brain
A. Cerebral (Cerebrum) Hemispheres
1. cerebral cortex
a. gyri
b. sulci
c. fissure
1) longitudinal fissure
2) lobes
d. functional areas
1) occipital lobe
2) temporal lobe
3) parietal lobe
4) frontal lobe
2. medullary body
1) association fibers
2) commissural fibers
a) corpus callosum
3) projection fibers
B. Brain stem
1.medulla oblongata
1) decussation of the pyramids
a. nuclei
1) cardiovascular center
2) vasomotor center
3) respiratory center
4) non-vital centers
2. pons
3. midbrain
C. Diencephalon
1. thalamus
2. hypothalamus
D. Cerebellum
1. anatomy
a. wings
b. vermis
c. folia
2. function
E. Functional brain systems
1. Limbic system
2. Reticular Activating System (RAS)
III. Protection of the CNS
A. Bone
B. Meninges
1. dura mater
a. subdural space
2. arachnoid mater
a. subarachnoid space
1) trabeculae
3. pia mater
C. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
D. Blood-Brain barrier
IV. Spinal Cord
A. Gross anatomy
1. swellings
a. cervical enlargement
b. lumbar enlargement
2. conus medullaris
3. filum terminale
4. cauda equina
B. Cross sectional anatomy
1. gray matter
1) posterior horn
2) anterior horn
3) lateral horn
2. white matter
a. posterior culumn
b. anterior column
c. lateral columns
C. Functions
1. communications link
a. tracts
2. spinal reflexes
Brain Structures : Cerebral Cortex, Lobes,
Cerebral hemispheres
Frontal lobe
cortex: (gray matter)(white matter).
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Meninges ~ Skull 💀 Bone
Internal Structures
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Chapter 13 continued
I. Introduction
II. Sensory Receptors
A. Background
B. Classification by Stimulus Type
1. mechanoreceptors
2. thermoreceptors
3. photoreceptors
4. chemoreceptors
5. nociceptors
C. Classification by Location
1. exteroceptors
2. interoceptors
3. proprioceptors
D. Classification by Structure or complexity
1. simple
a. unencapsulated
b. encapsulated
2. complex
III. Nerves
A. Nerve connective tissue layers
1. endoneurium
2. perineurium
a. fascicle
3. epineurium
B. Reminder
1. afferent
2. efferent
3. mixed
C. Ganglia
D. Regeneration
IV. Origination
A. Cranial Nerves
1) Olfactory (I)
2) Optic (II)
3) Oculomotor (III)
4) Trochlear (IV)
5) Trigeminal (V)
6) Abducens (VI)
7) Facial (VII)
8) Auditory (Vestibulocochlear) (VIII)
9) Glossopharyngeal (IX)
10) Vagus (X)
11) Spinal accessory (XI)
12) Hypoglossal (XII)
B.Spinal nerves
1) dorsal nerve roots
2) ventral nerve roots
a. Cervical C1 - C8
b. Thoracic T1 - T12
c. Lumbar L1- L5
d. Sacral S1- S5
e. coccygeal Co1
Spinal cord Gross structure
Spine Plexus
(C1,C2,C3,C4,C5,C6,C7,C8)
(C1-4)(C5-T1)
Thoracic nerves (T1,T2,T3,T4,T5,T6,T7,T8,T9,T10,T11,T12) Dura mater
Lumbar nerves (L1,L2,L3,L4,L5)
Cauda equina
(L1-4)(L4-S4)
Lumbo- sacral plexus (L1-S4)
Coccygeal nerves
C0
Coccygeal plexus (S5-C0)
Spinal Plexus
Cervical nerves
Neck back area : Ventral rami C¹, C², C³, C⁴, C⁵.
Arm area: Spinal Plexus ,Brachial plexus nerves
Spinal Plexus Lumbar plexus nerves(ventral view; front)
Spinal Plexus Sacral plexus nerves(dorsal view; back)
The Autonomic Nervous System Chapter 15
I. Background
A. ANS
B. Comparison - somatic vs autonomic
1. effector organs
2. structure
a. SNS
b. ANS
1) preganglionic neuron
2) postganglionic neuron
II. Subdivisions of ANS
A. Sympathetic
1. Overview
a. flight-or-fight
2. Anatomy
a. site of origin - thoracolumbar division
b. fibers
1) preganglionic neurons
a) white ramus
b) sympathetic trunk
2) synapse
3) postganglionic neurons
a) gray ramus
B. Parasympathetic
1. Overview
a. resting & digesting
2. Anatomy
a. site of origin - craniaosacral division
1) cranial nerves
2) vagus nerve
3) sacral nerves
b. fibers
1) terminal ganglia
III. Neurotransmitters
A. Acetylcholine (ACh)
1. cholinergic fibers
2. release
3. receptors
a. nicotinic
b. muscarinic
B. Norepinephrine (NE)
1. adrenergic fibers
2. release
3. receptors
a. beta blockers
b. phenylephrine
IV. Communication
V. Control
A. Brain stem & spinal cord controls
B. Hypothalamic control
C. Cortical control
The Endocrine System Chapter 17
I. Overview
A. Endocrine system
1. hormones
B. Endocrinology
C. Target cells
D. Effects
E. Slow
II. Pituitary & Hypothalamus
A. Location
B. Posterior pituitary
1. hormones
a. oxytocin
b. antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
C. Anterior pituitary
1. hormones
a. growth hormone (somatotropin)
1) insulin-like growth factors
b.thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
1) T3 & T4
c. adronocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
1) corticosteroid hormones
d. gonadotropins
1) follicle stimulating hormone
2) luteinizing hormone
e. prolactin
III. Thyroid
A. Location
B. Hormones
1. thyroid hormone (TH)
a. T4 & T3
b. goiter
c. Graves' disease
2. calcitonin
IV. Parathyroid
A. Location
B. Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
V. Adrenal Gland
A. Location
B. Adrenal cortex
1. corticosteroids
a. mineralocorticoids
b. glucocorticoids
c. gonadocorticoids
C. Adrenal medulla
1. catecholamines
a. epinephrine (adrenaline)
b. norepinephrine (noradrenalin)
VI. Pineal Gland
A. Location
B. Melatonin
VII. Pancreas
A. Location
a. pancreatic islets
B. Hormones
a. insulin
1) beta cells
b. glucagon
1) alpha cells
2) effects
a) glycogenolysis
b) gluconeogenesis
C. Diseases
1. diabetes mellitus
1) ketone bodies
2) ketoacidosis
2. hyperinsulinism
VIII. Gonads
A. Ovaries
1. estrogen & progesterone
B. Testes
1. testosterone
C. Placenta
1. human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) hormone
IX. Other Endocrine Glands & Tissues
A. Adipose tissue
1. leptin
2. resistin
3. adiponectin
B. Enteroendocrine cells
1. gastrin
2. secretin
3. cholecystokinin (CKK)
4. incretins
C. Kidneys
1. erythropoietin
2. renin
D. Bone
1. osteoclacin
E. Skin
1. cholacalciferol
F. Thymus
1. thymulin, thymopoietins, thymosins
The Body Is Architecture
Humans and buildings are more alike than we think.
I continue to be fascinated by the human body — not just its form, but the way it functions too. The way parts connect, interlock, interact. In architecture and interior design programs, one of the fundamental representational elements you learn is the section cut — referring to the cut that runs through the body of a building, perpendicular to the horizontal plane. It reveals the innards of a building, vertically. You can also make a cut that is parallel to the horizontal plane — as if you were cutting a cake in half to make two layers — but this typically refers to the plan drawing.
The section cut is absolutely essential to understanding the way a building is designed, but also to the actual design itself. Architects and interior designers use this perspective in the process of creation to understand how the elements of a building or interior interact and get superimposed. It offers the three dimensionality that a plan cannot, while retaining the holistic view and measured precision that a perspective drawing lacks.
The section is also unique in that it highlights the relationship between exterior and interior. It calls attention to the physical boundary that separates the two, which then also serves to underlie the fine conceptual line between architecture and interior design. How is the facade of a building expressed interiorly? How may the inside impact the design of the outside? A section drawing will help you figure this out.
Thus, cutting through a building or interior as you would, for instance, cut through a sandwich to reveal its layers, is not only supremely satisfying, it is a foundational element in understanding the practice designing space. One of my past teachers used to always encourage us to make cuts; when in doubt just cut through it. It will help reveal details you may have overlooked, and it will help guide the design.
In fact, you can cut a section through pretty much anything — not literally, of course, but on paper. In real life, we do it pretty frequently — for those of us who cook at least: chopping produce, slicing a cake, cutting bread, the aforementioned sandwich, …. Sections are, in the end, part of lives.
Buildings and People Are Both Architectures
To extend the metaphor further, you can think of when scientists used to cut human bodies open to study their insides, to understand how the human body functions (and fails). Cutting open a building, then, is like cutting open a body. A body of architecture made of mortar, bricks, and stones versus a body of architecture made of tissue, muscle, and bone.
Hence, the connection: the body is architecture — or an architecture. It is a structure defined by a system, just as a building is. It is the product of design, even if that design is completely organic. It can be modified, or otherwise impacted, intentionally, or not.
It records the passing of time in the way it morphs physically and emotionally. Wrinkles — cracks on the ceiling; grey hair — paint chipping away; bones growing weaker — structural beams losing their strength. It’s all connected. The body, the building. The individual, the society.
“This brings us back to Semper’s privileging of the joint as the primordial tectonic element, as the fundamental nexus around which building comes into being, that is to say, comes to be articulated as a presence in itself. There is a spiritual value residing in the ‘thingness’ of the constructed object, so much so that the generic joint becomes a point of ontological condensation rather than a mere connection.” — Kenneth Frampton
His emphasis on the joint as the most essential element of architecture, points to the connection between the body and the building, since joints exist in the human form too. Frampton goes further into this analysis by foregrounding the inherent spirituality of the joint. The building thus becomes more than just a body; it becomes a person — much like when a body is linked to a mind and a soul, it becomes human.
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